How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89?

Why did James II lose the confidence of the political nation by 1688?

He was openly Catholic, bypassed Parliament and appeared to be building an absolutist monarchy modelled on Louis XIV's France, especially after defeating Monmouth's rebellion in 1685. It seemed the fears behind the Civil War had returned.

What was the Declaration of Indulgence (1687)?

James used his prerogative to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters, without Parliament. He reissued it in 1688 and ordered it read in churches. Opponents objected that he was overruling Parliament, and argued that toleration should come from a law passed by Parliament.

Why was it difficult for Anglican Tories to oppose James II?

They believed in non-resistance and passive obedience (unquestioning obedience to the monarch, even when he abuses his powers). They had to find a way to oppose James without contradicting their own principles.

What event in June 1688 transformed the succession crisis?

The birth of James II's son on 10 June. It created the prospect of a permanent Catholic dynasty and pushed his Protestant daughter Mary down the line of succession.

Why did the Seven Bishops become symbols of resistance to James II?

They petitioned against reading the Declaration of Indulgence in churches and were arrested for seditious libel. Their acquittal on 30 June 1688 was widely celebrated as a defeat for royal overreach.

Why was William of Orange invited to intervene in England?

On 30 June 1688 seven leading Whig and Tory politicians invited him to come with an army. They feared a Catholic succession and wanted to protect Protestantism and parliamentary government, but did not necessarily have a plan for what would follow.

What happened when William landed in England in November 1688?

He landed at Torbay on 5 November. James's support collapsed through desertions, including leading army officers such as John Churchill, and there was almost no fighting.

Why was James II's flight important to the success of the Revolution?

He fled in December 1688. This let Parliament claim he had abandoned the throne instead of formally deposing him. His staying on might have saved his crown, because the Lords and clergy would probably have rejected a vote to remove him, and many people supported divine right and hereditary monarchy to avoid the instability of the Interregnum.

Why was it unclear what would happen after James fled in December 1688?

It was uncertain whether James had abdicated, whether William wanted to work with Parliament, and whether Parliament could meet without a king to summon it. On 26 December William called together sympathetic peers and MPs, and a Convention Parliament was hurriedly elected to meet on 22 January 1689.

What did the Convention Parliament decide in early 1689?

It declared that James had abdicated and the throne was vacant. "Abdicated" was a compromise wording that avoided saying a king could be deposed.

What was the Whig argument for removing James II?

That he had broken a solemn contract with his people. Government rested on an agreement between king and people, so if the king broke it Parliament could appoint another ruler. Locke's Two Treatises of Government (1689) supported this view, though Locke only wanted to protect life and property and was not interested in universal suffrage.

How did Parliament settle the crown in February 1689?

Radical Whigs wanted William made king immediately, but many others favoured Mary's hereditary right, so the crown was offered jointly to William III and Mary II. A Declaration of Rights was presented at the same time, and William held the real executive power. William claimed he did not accept the throne with conditions, but both were clearly placed on it on terms set by Parliament.

What was the Declaration of Rights and how did it become the Bill of Rights?

The Declaration of Rights set out constitutional principles and was presented to William and Mary with the crown. It was modified and passed as the Bill of Rights in December 1689. Disagreements between Whigs and Tories watered some terms down, but the Whigs got the clause on peacetime armies included.

What did the Bill of Rights say about royal powers?

The monarch could not suspend or dispense with laws without Parliament's consent, raise taxes without Parliament, or keep a standing army in peacetime without Parliament's approval.

What did the Bill of Rights say about Parliament and elections?

It guaranteed free elections, freedom of speech in Parliament and regular meetings of Parliament.

What did the Bill of Rights say about Catholics?

It barred Catholics, and anyone who married a Catholic, from the throne.

Why were the Bill of Rights clauses on the army and elections important?

The army clause settled the army's legal position, which had been unclear, and answered the forces Charles II raised that could have been used to enforce absolutism. The election clause reflected MPs' anger at the Crown intimidating them and tampering with elections.

What were the Mutiny Acts?

After troops loyal to James refused to fight for William, Parliament passed the first Mutiny Act (1689). It let the Crown hold courts martial to punish mutineers, which common law did not allow. It lasted only a year and had to be renewed, so the monarch had to call Parliament regularly. It benefited both: William could punish mutineers, and Parliament gained a limit on the prerogative.

How significant was the Bill of Rights?

It is often compared with Magna Carta (1215) and the Petition of Right (1628). Most clauses addressed specific abuses by Charles II and James II, and it limited the royal prerogative and confirmed Parliament's central role in government.

What were the limits of the Bill of Rights?

Many clauses just restated the existing constitution. It was vague about what "free" elections and "frequent" Parliaments meant (the Triennial Act of 1694 later helped). It was an ordinary statute that a future Parliament could revoke, and it created no new way to remove a monarch. The monarch still controlled war, peace, foreign policy and the choice of advisers.

Why did William support religious toleration in 1689?

He favoured toleration but wanted to keep good relations with both dissenters and Anglicans. In early 1689 he urged the removal of the sacramental test for office. As a compromise, a Toleration Act was passed and Anglican demands for uniformity were referred to Convocation. Tories feared he wanted to impose Dutch Calvinism.

What was the Toleration Act (1689)?

It gave freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters who swore loyalty to the Crown and rejected papal authority. Their meetings were closely monitored and meeting-house doors could not be locked. Quakers, who refused oaths, were allowed to declare their loyalty instead.

Which groups were excluded from the Toleration Act?

Catholics, non-Trinitarians and Jews.

Why was the Toleration Act limited in scope?

It gave worship rights but not political equality. The Test and Corporation Acts stayed in force, so most dissenters could still not hold public office, sit in Parliament or attend university. Dissenters also still had to pay tithes to the Church.

What was the effect of the Whigs' demand for an oath of allegiance to William and Mary?

The Whig majority insisted the clergy swear allegiance to William and Mary. Over 400 parish priests, who had already sworn allegiance to James and believed in passive obedience, refused and lost their livings. They were replaced by more moderate men sympathetic to the Whigs.

How did events after 1688 undermine the Anglican Church and the confessional state?

The Church could no longer enforce complete uniformity, dissenters flourished (around 400,000, nearly 8% of the population, by 1714), Catholics enjoyed a reasonable degree of freedom, and the power of Church courts was severely restricted.

Why can it be argued the Anglican Church remained supreme?

The Test Act and Act of Uniformity were not repealed, so anyone wanting public employment or a seat in Parliament had to take Anglican communion. The Toleration Act can be seen as a reactionary attempt to preserve order and the Anglican Church, not a break with it.

How did William view the Whigs and Tories in 1690?

The 1690 Parliament had 225 Whigs and 206 Tories. William distrusted the Whigs as too radical (some he suspected of being republicans) and tried to win over the Tories, who favoured tradition and loyalty to the monarchy and Church. He left loyal Court Tories in charge when he went to Ireland in 1690.

What were the Court and Country parties?

Two broad factions in Parliament. The Court party was loyal to the Crown, and the Country party was made up of discontented Whigs and some Tories who thought the Court party was corrupting policy.

What was the financial settlement of 1690 designed to do?

Parliament deliberately made it too small for William to live on, so he had to keep going back to Parliament for money.

What happened in Ireland after 1688?

James held a parliament in Ireland in 1689 backed by the Catholic gentry, and over 80,000 soldiers fought on both sides. Over 8,000 people died at the Siege of Derry (1689). William won at the Boyne (July 1690), and half of James's soldiers were killed or captured at Aughrim (July 1691).

What happened in Scotland after 1688?

There was a Jacobite rising (1689–92) in support of James II. It ended with the massacre at Glencoe in 1692.

Why did England join the Nine Years' War (1688–97)?

To stop Louis XIV dominating Europe. William led the League of Augsburg (Holland, England, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire) against France. It transformed British foreign policy, and William spent six years on campaign.

How did the Nine Years' War strain William's relationship with Parliament?

He demanded huge sums that no Parliament had ever approved. After 1691 the opposition favoured reducing his role and only voted funding for 10,000 troops. Merchants were unhappy because trade routes became dangerous, and he was criticised for using foreign commanders.

What was the Public Accounts Commission (1691)?

Concern about the huge sums spent on the war led William to agree to the Public Accounts Act in 1690, and the first commission was set up in 1691. Its nine commissioners, chosen by MPs, could question ministers, call for papers, check whether money had been spent properly, and publish reports exposing corruption or waste.

How effective was parliamentary scrutiny of government spending?

It was unprecedented, and William was generally happy to adopt its suggestions and was forced to reassess the size of the army and navy. But ministers evaded questions and obstructed it, and many intended reports were never completed. William blocked a new commission after 1697, and in the later 1690s the Country opposition increasingly used it to attack ministers rather than check finances. Speaker Sir John Trevor was expelled for financial malpractice.

What was the Land Tax (1692)?

A tax on land introduced to fund the war with France. It raised £1 million in its first year and was the most significant tax, paid mainly by landed elites.

Who were the Whig Junto?

A group of leading Whigs (Somers, Wharton, Russell and Montagu) who became influential in 1692–93, backed a strong executive and supported the war with France. By early 1694 Montagu was Chancellor of the Exchequer, Somers Lord Keeper and Russell First Lord of the Admiralty.

What was the National Debt?

Government borrowing guaranteed by Parliament, which began as a new system of public credit to cover the war shortfall from 1693. It reached £16.7 million by 1698, and repayments took about 30% of the Crown's annual revenue. It was secure because it was underwritten by Parliament and long-term.

How was the Bank of England created (1694)?

It was Charles Montagu's scheme, supported by many Whigs but opposed by leading Tories. Investors lent the government £1.2 million at 8%, much lower than the 14% on earlier loans, and were incorporated as the Bank of England. It could deal in bills of exchange and issue banknotes.

What was the Triennial Act (1694)?

It said no Parliament could last longer than three years, so elections had to be held at least every three years. William had vetoed an earlier bill in 1693 but accepted it in 1694 when the Whig Junto dominated government. It was replaced by the Septennial Act in 1716, which allowed seven years.

Why was the Triennial Act significant?

It meant more frequent elections and more contested seats. This made it harder for the Crown to build a party majority in the Commons, so William had to rely more on securing MPs' support.

What was the "Rage of Party"?

A period of intense rivalry between Whigs and Tories from around 1690 to 1715. Frequent elections made political competition much sharper and caused instability.

What happened when the Licensing Act lapsed in 1695?

Press censorship ended. Newspapers and pamphlets spread political information, so the electorate of around 200,000 men was better informed than ever.

What happened in February 1696?

A plot by Stuart sympathisers to assassinate William was discovered. Parliament rallied round him through a loyal "Association", though 89 Tories refused to sign it. William became more dependent on the Whigs and the Junto.

What did the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) do?

It ended the Nine Years' War. Louis XIV recognised William III as king of England and promised to give no help to James II. Borders in North America returned to their pre-1688 positions. Both sides were bankrupt and weary of war.

How did Parliament limit William's army after 1697?

After the peace, Tories and non-Junto Whigs pushed for the army and war taxes to be cut. The Country opposition limited the army in England to 7,000 men and refused to let William keep his Dutch guards.

What was the Civil List Act (1697)?

It gave William £700,000 a year for life, to pay for the royal household, civil servants and judges. Any surplus needed Parliament's consent, and Parliament paid all military and naval costs, in peace and war. Because the grant had to be renewed, the monarch had to meet Parliament regularly.

What was the Financial Revolution?

The development of new systems of taxation, borrowing and banking, including the Land Tax, National Debt and Bank of England. It strengthened the state's ability to pay for war. During the Nine Years' War average annual spending was just over £5.4 million against average tax revenue of £3.6 million, and borrowing filled the gap.

Why did parliamentary control of finance matter?

The king had to meet Parliament regularly. Parliament controlled military spending and could withhold funds, audit government accounts, and from 1698 controlled the Crown's day-to-day spending through the civil list. The monarch could no longer use the prerogative to avoid working with Parliament.

What was the Bill of Resumption (1699–1700)?

The Commons' attempt to take back Irish lands William had granted to courtiers. The lands were to be sold, with the money going to pay the army's arrears. The Lords tried to amend it, but William reluctantly gave his assent, showing Parliament could overrule royal decisions.

How did the Whig Junto decline between 1698 and 1701?

In 1698 Montagu was demoted and Russell resigned, leaving only Somers in position. The Tories gained in the 1701 election and began impeachment proceedings against Somers, Montagu and Russell, though they were acquitted.

How did the Act of Settlement (1701) secure a Protestant succession?

After the death of Anne's last surviving child, it named Sophia of Hanover, granddaughter of James I, and her Protestant heirs as next in line after Anne. Catholics, and anyone who married a Catholic, were barred from the throne. Sophia died first, so her son George I became king in 1714.

How did the Act of Settlement strengthen judicial independence?

Judges could no longer be dismissed without Parliament's consent. This answered James's removal of disloyal judges and stopped monarchs using the courts for political purposes.

What religious and foreign restrictions did the Act of Settlement place on monarchs?

All future monarchs had to belong to the Church of England. A foreign-born monarch could not take England into a war to defend his home territories without Parliament's consent. No foreign-born man could join the Privy Council, sit in Parliament, hold military command or be granted lands or titles.

What other restrictions did the Act of Settlement include?

The monarch could not leave Britain without Parliament's permission (repealed in 1716), all government business had to be discussed in the full Privy Council, and royal pardons could not block impeachment.

How far did Parliament become a partner in government by 1701?

Parliament gained control of finance and the army, forced William to appoint ministers he disliked and cut the army. But the monarch still controlled foreign policy and could declare war, dissolve Parliament and veto laws. Many in the political class still wanted royal office, which strengthened William's hand.

How can the political settlement be described?

As a monarchy of Parliament's choosing. Parliament decided the succession and controlled the army through the Mutiny Act. Royal interference with the law was restricted, elections were meant to be regular and free, and taxation by prerogative was theoretically impossible. The Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement were foundations of a constitutional monarchy, not its finished form.

How far did the settlement end divine right monarchy?

After the Bill of Rights, monarchs could no longer claim their power came from God. Their authority was approved by the people through their representatives in Parliament. Divine right had been a central issue in the Civil War and had returned after the Restoration in 1660.

Why can it be argued a constitutional monarchy was not fully established by 1701?

Parliament was still only an advisory body and the monarch remained pre-eminent. The electorate was small and Parliament represented only the richest 2% of the population. The office of prime minister did not emerge until Walpole in 1721, and the Crown's property was not placed under parliamentary control until 1760. Some argue little changed except the line of succession.

How did the Revolution Settlement affect the monarchy?

It created a constitutional monarchy in which royal power was limited by law and Parliament, and the monarch ruled in partnership with Parliament.

What was the most important consequence of the Glorious Revolution?

It established parliamentary supremacy and a constitutional monarchy, and secured a Protestant succession.