Comprehensive Psychology: Learning, Conditioning, Memory Models and Processes

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience; it is ongoing across the lifespan, can be intentional or unintentional, active or passive, and can be modified.

Stimulus

Any object or event in the environment that produces a response from an organism.

Response

A reaction by an organism to a stimulus, which may be voluntary or involuntary.

Classical conditioning

A simple, passive form of learning where an involuntary response is produced through repeated association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an involuntary response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

The involuntary, unlearned response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not initially produce the response being studied, but can become associated with the UCS through repeated pairing.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with the UCS, triggers a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

The learned response produced by the CS after conditioning; it is similar to the UCR but triggered by the CS alone.

Before conditioning

The NS produces no relevant response, while the UCS naturally produces the UCR.

During conditioning (acquisition)

The NS is repeatedly paired with the UCS, usually just before it, resulting in the UCR.

After conditioning

The NS becomes the CS and produces the CR when presented alone.

Nature of the response

The UCR must be automatic/involuntary for conditioning to occur.

Association of stimuli

The NS and UCS must be paired closely together in time and/or space to form an association.

Timing

The NS must be presented before the UCS with a very short interval (≈0.5 seconds) to ensure effective conditioning.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which the likelihood of a voluntary behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences that follow it.

Operant

A voluntary response or behaviour that acts on the environment to produce a consequence.

Antecedent (A)

The environmental stimulus or situation that occurs before the behaviour and signals that a response may lead to a consequence.

Behaviour (B)

The voluntary action performed by the organism that has an effect on the environment.

Consequence (C)

The outcome that follows the behaviour and influences the likelihood of that behaviour occurring again.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

Punishment

Any consequence that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

Positive reinforcement

Strengthening behaviour by adding a pleasant stimulus after the behaviour.

Negative reinforcement

Strengthening behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus after the behaviour.

Positive punishment

Weakening behaviour by adding an unpleasant stimulus after the behaviour.

Negative punishment

Weakening behaviour by removing a pleasant stimulus after the behaviour.

Order of presentation

The consequence must occur after the behaviour for learning to occur.

Timing (consequences)

Consequences are most effective when delivered immediately after the behaviour.

Appropriateness

Reinforcers must be perceived as pleasant and punishers as unpleasant, depending on the individual and situation.

Observational learning

The acquisition of knowledge, skills, or behaviours by observing others and the consequences of their actions, without direct experience.

Model

The individual whose behaviour is observed and potentially imitated.

Attention

Actively focusing on the model's behaviour and its consequences; more likely when the model is attractive, similar, or high status.

Retention

Storing a mental representation of the observed behaviour so it can be recalled later; improved by meaningful encoding.

Reproduction

The ability and physical/mental capacity to perform the observed behaviour.

Motivation

The desire to perform the behaviour, influenced by expected rewards or usefulness.

Reinforcement (observational)

A pleasant consequence that increases the likelihood of reproducing behaviour.

Vicarious reinforcement

Learning through observing others being rewarded for a behaviour.

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information when needed.

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model

A model explaining memory as three separate stores (sensory, short-term, long-term) with information flowing sequentially through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Sensory memory

The initial stage of memory that briefly stores incoming sensory information in its raw form.

Function (sensory memory)

Detects and briefly holds sensory input.

Capacity (sensory memory)

Very large.

Duration (sensory memory)

Very brief.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory store.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory store.

Short-term memory

A temporary store that holds a limited amount of information in conscious awareness.

Function (short-term memory)

Active working area for processing information.

Capacity (short-term memory)

Limited.

Duration (short-term memory)

Brief unless rehearsed.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to increase capacity.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in STM.

Elaborative rehearsal

Linking new information with existing knowledge to aid transfer to LTM.

Long-term memory

A relatively permanent memory store with potentially unlimited capacity.

Function (long-term memory)

Stores information for long periods.

Capacity (long-term memory)

Unlimited.

Duration (long-term memory)

Potentially lifelong.

Explicit (declarative) memory

Memory that requires conscious recall.

Semantic memory

Memory for facts, concepts, and general knowledge.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal experiences and events.

Implicit memory

Memory that does not require conscious recall.

Procedural memory

Memory for skills and actions.

Hippocampus

Consolidates new memories and is crucial for forming long-term memories.

Amygdala

Processes emotional aspects of memory.

Neocortex

Involved in long-term storage of memories.

Basal ganglia

Involved in procedural memory and habits.

Cerebellum

Coordinates motor learning and conditioned responses.

Alzheimer's disease

A neurodegenerative disorder characterised by progressive memory loss.

Amyloid plaques

Protein deposits that disrupt communication between neurons.

Neurofibrillary tangles

Twisted fibres within neurons that impair function.

Acetylcholine reduction

Decrease in neurotransmitter affecting memory processes.

Aphantasia

An individual difference where a person cannot form mental images.

Mnemonic

A memory aid used to improve encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Acronym

A word formed from the first letters of items.

Acrostic

A sentence where the first letters represent information.

Method of loci

Associating information with specific locations in a familiar environment.

Songlines

Oral mnemonic system using sung narratives to encode and transmit knowledge.