Retake Exam 2

Encoding

acquiring information and transforming it into memory

Storage

stretches from a few moments ago to as far back as one can remember

Retrieval

transferring information from LTM to working memory

Sensory

super fast

Short-term memory

last for a short amount of time (limited)

Long-term Memory

last for a long amount of time (unlimited)

Control Processes

active processes that can be controlled by the person

Central Executive

limited component of working memory — manages attention and coordinates information flow

Visuospatial Sketchpad

visual and spacial information

Phonological Loop

verbal and authority information

Episodic Buffer

backup store that communicates with long-term and working memory components.

STM vs. WM

STM holds information, while WM processes information

Capacity

the total amount of processing a brain can manage

Duration

how long a memory trace can be held, before its forgotten

Magic Number 7 ± 2

the span of immediate memory is limited to approximately seven items (between 5 - 9)

Whole report

required recalling all rows

Partial report

required to recall only one row

Delayed partial report

introduced a delay

Short-term Memory Duration & Capacity

without active rehearsal, most information in STM disappears within seconds

Sensory Memory Duration and Capacity

generally has a high capacity, but its duration is extremely short

Iconic Memory

brief sensory memory of the things that we see

Echoic Memory

brief sensory memory of the things we hear

Sperling (1960)

measured iconic memory capacity and duration using whole report, partial report, and delayed partial report of letter arrays

Peterson & Peterson (1959)

participants memorized 3 letters, then counted backward by 3s (prevents rehearsal), then recalled the letters

Miller (1956)

reviewed studies on STM capacity; proposed chunking as a way to expand function STM

Ericsson et al. (1980)

trained one college student with average memory to use chunking strategies over 230+ one-hour sessions

Chase & Simon (1973)

tested memory for chess pieces placed in realistic mid-game position vs. random positions— chess masters vs. beginners

Funahashi et al. (1989)

single-cell recordings from monkey prefrontal context during a delayed spatial memory task (oculomotor delayed response)

Stokes (2015)

theoretical and empricial investigation of how working memory is maintained in the brain

Vogel et al. (2005)

measured WM Capacity and brain responses while partiicpants held simple vs. complex stimuli; divided into high/low capacity groups

Shepard & Metzler (1971)

participants judged if pairs of 3D shapes were identitcal; shapes were rotated by varying angular amounts

Brooks (1968)

two dual-task experiments: (1) memorize sentence + point or speak; (2) visualize letter + point or speak

Iconic Memory*

What memory type did Sperling (1960) measure capacity for? 

~500 ms

What is the approximate duration of iconic memory? 

7 +- 2 chunks 

What is Miller’s “magic number” for STM capacity? 

Patterns

Chase & Simon (1973) found chess masters chunk pieces into familiar…

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) 

Which brain area showed continuous firing during a delay task in Funahashi et al. (1989) 

Synaptic connections 

What did Stokes (2015) propose holds information after neural firing stops? 

True (Shepard & Metzler)

Shepard & Metzler (1971) found that reaction time increased linearly with the angular rotation of 3D shapes. 

True (Brooks)

Brooks (1968) found worst performance when the task and response used the SAME WM subsystem. 

Central Executive efficiency 

What did Vogel et al. (2005) attribute the difference between high-WM and low-WM individuals to?

15-20 seconds 

In Peterson & Peterson (1959), what was the approcimate duration of STM without rehearsal? 

Counting backward by 3s

What task did participants perform in Peterson & Peterson (1959) to prevent rehearsal? 

79

To what number did Ericcson et al. (1980) expand a students digit span?

Chess masters

In Chase & Simon (1973), which group performed better only on realistic chess positions? 

Passive (STM)

simply holding information in place for a few seconds

Active (WM)

holding and manipulating information simultaneously

Anterograde Amnesia

inability to create new explicit long-term memories

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to access old explicit long-term memories

STM vs LTM

different capacity and duration levels

Episodic (LTM)

no episodic memory, cannot relive past events

Semantic (LTM)

no semantic memory, cannot remember general information

The Serial Position Curve

people tend to remember information at the beginning or the end

Primacy Effect

best for items at the beginning of a set (LTM)

Recency Effect

best for items at the end of a set (STM)

Coding in LTM

semantic coding

Explicit LTM

the conscious recollection of information, concepts, experiences (episodic and semantic)

Implicit LTM

the unconscious recollection of information, concepts, experiences (procedural, conditioning, priming)

Procedural Memory

perform procedures without being consciously aware on how to do them

Conditioning

pairing two stimuli together to create a conditioned response

Priming

prior exposure to stimuli affect later exposure to stimuli

Murdoch (1962)

participants studied a word list and wrote down all words they remembered (free recall)

Rundus (1971)

participants rehearsed aloud during study; rehearsal frequency per item was counted and recorded

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)

varied the delay (0 vs 30 seconds) between list presentation and free recall

Wickens et al. (1976)

fruits group recieved fruit names on all 4 trials. Professions group received professions on trials 1-3, then fruits on trial 4

Sachs (1967)

participants heard a passage, then were tested with recognition sentences (exact word, semanting paraphrase, or changed meaning)

Tulving (1985) - KC & LP

KC had hippocampal damage. LP had semantic memory impairment. Both were extensively studied over time.

Graf et al. (1985)

compared amnesiac patients, alcoholic controls, and medical inpatients on explicit recall vs. implicit word-stem completion

Warrington & Weiskrantz (1968)

Korsakoff’s syndrome patients were trained to identify increasingly complete fragmented images across multiple sessions

Cabeza et al. (2004)

fMRI compared brain activation for participants viewing photos they personally took vs. photos taken by an experimenter

Primacy Effect*

what is the term for the superior memory for items at the beginning of a list?

Recency effect*

according to Glanzer & Cunitz (1966), what does a 30-second delay eliminate in the serial position curve?

Semantic coding

what type of coding in LTM was confirmed by the “release from PI” in Wickens et al. (1976)

Changed meaning

In Sachs (1967), what were participants most likely to detect as “wrong” in a recognition test?

Patient KC

which patient in Tulving (1985) had intact semantic memory, but no episodic memory?

Word-stem completion

what did Graf et al. (1985) use to test implicit memory in amnesiacs

Identifying fragmented images

in Warrington & Weiskrantz (1986), what task did Korsakoff’s syndrome patients improve on?

Prefrontal context

which brain area was uniquely recruited for (own photos) in Cabeza et al. (2004)

Maintenance Rehearsal

repetition of stimuli that maintains information but does not transfer to LTM 

Elaborative Rehearsal

using meanings and connections to help transfer information to LTM 

Shallow Processing

little attention to meaning, poor meaning

Imagery

vivid, visual, descriptive language 

Self-Reference Effect

to better remember when information is personally related to themselves 

Generation Effect

to better remember when information is produced from one's own mind

Organizing To-Be-Remembered Information

techniques like, chunking data, creating mental stories, mnemonic devices 

Relating Words to Survival Value

to better remember when framing information within context of personal survival

Retrieval Practice

to better remember when actively recalling information

Recognition

 involves matching

Recall

involves searching 

Free Recall

retrieve information in any order without external prompts or cues 

Serial Recall

reproduce a sequence of items in the same order they were presented

Cued Recall

retrieve information with external prompts, cues or hints 

Encoding Specificity

memory retrieval is most effective when conditions match those during encoding 

State-Dependent Learning

information is better learned when recalled in the similar state

Context-Depending Learning

information is better recalled when learned in a similar state 

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

memory task results improve if the type of processing is the same for encoding and retrieval. 

Standard Model of Consolidation

based on observation of injury/trauma-related memory loss

Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation

hippocampus is activated during retrieval of both recent and remote memories 

Reconsolidation

retrieved memories becomes fragile and are consolidated again

Craik & Tulving (1975)

orienting questions required structural, phonological, or semantic processing of words; surprise recall or recognition test followed