History - Empire year 2 content

What was the context of Britain’s involvement in WW1? How does it link to empire?

Britain joined ww1 on the 4th of august 1914, the war was fought between the triple entente ‘the allies’ and the triple alliance ‘central powers’. GB declared war on behalf of the empire, the general consensus would be that it would be a short war and that most the fighting would come from Britain with little help from empire. This wasn’t the case

How was empire involved with ww1 overall?

• Colonies and dominions sent 4 million men to support the 5 million men from the British isles

• Empire provided Britain with food, raw materials, and money e.g $100 million given by Indian govt

• Presidents of dominions and nominated indian representatives joined the war cabinet in London 1917 e.g Boer, Jan Smuts

What impacts did white dominions have on the war effort in WW1?

• Huge number of volunteers joined armed forces, 1.2 million overall with 620k from Canada, 420k from Australia, and 100k from New zealand

• Huge battles fought with a majority from empire e.g Gallipoli 1915 mainly fought by AUS and NZ

• Canadian supplied munitions, 1/3rd used by GB in France 1917

• Smuts formed South African Defence force to fight Germany in SW Africa, 136,000 south african troops fought in the middle east and france

What impact did WW1 have on the domions?

• French-Canadian protests in Quebec city in 1918 against conscription, Australia held referendums against conscription in 1916 and 1917

• Strong republican movement in south africa led by J.B.M Hertzog

Overall WW1 increased dominons desire for independence therefore weakening the strength of empire, although no contraction

What support did India give GB in WW1?

• India gave large amounts of support;

  • in autumn 1914, 1/3 of GB troops in France were either Indians or British soldiers who had served in India

  • 1.27 million indians served in ww1, this was on every front

  • $100 million in funds

• The montague declaration from Edwin Montague the sec of state for India, promised india a more responsible self govt including more democratic reps

What support did Britain get from Egypt and Sub-saharan Africans in WW1?

Africa also gave support but not equal treatment

• in august 1914, Egypt was officially made a protectorate, 1.2 million were recruited to serve in the war, 100,000 served in Europe with 50% dying

• 1 million sub-saharans were made to be labourers and carriers in the war

The war sprung up nationalist movements like the uprising in Nyasaland led by John chilembwe

What was the background of post WW1 self determination?

Wilson promoted the principle of self determination in his 14 point plan in 1918, this was supposedly the basis of peace treaties after ww1 and did lead to newer nations in Europe, but GB and FR were concerned over self determination within their empires so resisted a general agreement in the League of Nations

GB and FR argued ex German/ Turkish colonies were not politically or economically developed enough or population educated enough to govern themselves so needed guidance

Mandates were created - the authority to rule over a place. LoN nations governed ex colonies

What did mandates mean for expansion of imperialism?

• Treaty of Versailles removed Germanys colonies, treaties of Sèvres, San Remo, and Lausanne removed ottoman territories, these lands became mandates.

• The British empire expanded 1.8 million sq miles and gained 13 million subjects, they gained control of places like Palestine and Iraq

• The dominions gained control too, e.g south west Africa was mandated by South Africa

What catagories of mandates were there?

• A category, quite developed (economically, institutionally, with infrastructure) like Jordon and Palestine, independence possible in near future

• B category, longer period of guidance needed, e.g togoland, tanganyika

• C category, independence not likely in foreseeable future e.g Samoa

What did Britain want Palestine? Why was it unstable?

Economic and strategic reasons

• mainland route to India

• Access to the Suez Canal and oil rich Iraq

• Control of the holy lands, great appeal to imperialists

By the end of WW1 Palestine was unstable, from heavy fighting, struggles with ottoman imperialism. also Britain had made promises to the Arabs and the Jews about the region which led to conflict

What was the Sykes Picot agreement?

signed 1916, GB and FR were going to divide the Ottoman Empire after the war, GB encourages the Arabs to rise against the Turks - T.E Lawrence, (Lawrence of Arabia) very important in creating the Arab revolution

What was the Balfour declaration, how did it affect Palestine?

• Arthur Balfour who was the foreign secretary attempted to win over anti imperialist Americans to British influence over the Middle East, he wrote a public letter to Walter Rothschild expressing Zionist sympathy ( this was a desire for a Jewish state)

• Balfour said he didn’t necessarily believe in a Jewish state however due to the Palestinians already there

• The Jewish population grew from 60,000 6.8% to 175,000 17.7% by 1931. The Zionist commission established Palestine to composing for Jewish riots

• Muslims and Christians set up the Muslim-Christian association

• 1918-20 violent clashes between the Arabs and Jews

How did the Ireland leave empire after ww1?

Home rule for Ireland was a major political debate in the late 19th century, Gladstone attempted to pass this in 1886 not only failed but created a lasting split in the liberal party, conservatives and liberal unionists continued to block home rule. 

This was finally passed by Asquith’s govt in 1914 but didn’t get implemented until the war ended. 

• Nationalists were angry, as there was large support of war efforts from many irish men

• in April 1916 the ‘easter rising’ occurred in Dublin, this was crushed by GB forces but it provoked further violence and guerillia warfare 

The 1921 Anglo-Irish treaty created an ‘irish free state’, this happened in the south, the northern 6 protestant counties became ‘Northern ireland’ 

In 1937, Ireland became fully independant

How did Egypt and Iraq slowly contract from empire?

In 1922, Egypt was granted formal independence but retained a ‘client’ state status which was similar to the ‘veiled’ protectorate. In 1936, The anglo-egyptian treaty came into place where GB troops left egypt except from the suez area

Also in 1922, the Anglo-Iraqi treaty established a monarchy under the hashemite family, they had new national borders with local self rule. GB controlled military and dominated politics and the economy, In 1932, the mandate ended with full independence for Iraq, except with continued British influence. RAF bases, BP had a 24% share of oil fields 

What was the myth created during WW2 about Britain’s situation?

What was the reality of this?

After Nazi conquest, and evacuations like Dunkirk, Churchills govt created propaganda that britain was fighting Germany alone, this created a ‘siege’ mentality to keep up spirits

In reality Britain had extensive imperial support, e.g Canada supported the war effort with C$3 billion in 1942-43. India provided 2.5 million soldiers, Australia 950k. The citizens of empire felt severe impacts

How did WW2 impact GB and european territories?

There was a constant threat to atlantic supply chains, so GB exports and imports reduced leading to rationing.

The nazi conquest of Europe in spring 1940 included the occupation of the channel isles, In june to november 1940-2 forces besiged malta but failed to take it, the people were given a joint george cross for heroism

How did ww2 impact North Africa?

• North Africa was a key battleground from 1940-43, GB was desperate to control Egypt and maintain access to the canal and oil

• axis occupation of the rest of North African coast occurred during the invasion of Egypt in 1942, this was stopped and driven back at the battles of El Alamein in July and October/november 1942

• Overall North Africa came back into control of allied hands in May 1943

How did WW2 impact south east Asia?

• from December 1941 to May 1942 Japan conquered most of the GB empire in SE Asia.

• The most notable defeat was the fall of Singapore, this was after a naval base had been expanded costing £60 million. By ww2 it was the fourth largest in the world. However the Japanese came through the back in the jungle which the British had ignored on the 8th February

• 80k forces from the empire surrendered on the 15th of February, largest ever surrender in British history

• Japan conquered Hong Kong in 1941, Malaya in 1942 as well as Burma

During the fighting 40k DUKE soldiers died, 150k poW, 1 million civilians died mostly in Burma, the Japanese ended the idea of ‘white invincibility’ and encouraged Asian independence movements

How did imperial subjects fight against Britain in the war?

• 30,000 Indian troops captured at Singapore formed the national Indian army (INA) under ‘bose’ and they fought the British in Burma

• Aung san formed the burma independence army initially to help the japanese get britain out

How did WW2 impact on India?

• In may 1942, Japanese invasions of burma created a direct threat on indias borders, the army held the line during ‘42 and early ‘43 whilst the allies focused west.

• In 1943, New south east asia command under mountbatten improved supplies, organisation, and training

• In 1944, Japan launched invasions in India, this failed by november due to battles of imphal and kohima

Overall 2.5 million Indians served, 87k died, with 3 million civilian casualties, mostly during the bengal famine in ‘43 this was mostly causes by climate conditons like droughts and the wartime rationing and lack of trade

How can we conclude ww2’s impact on empire?

Britain didn’t lose it’s empire during ww2 but there was change in attitudes

• international attitudes were intolerant to imperialism, there was a shift towards domestic policy after the war focusing on housing, NHS, etc

• GB was in debt of £27 billion

How did nationalism spark betweeen both wars in india?

• Govt of india act 1919, sharing of powers (dyarchy) close to provincial autonomy, this was an attempt to appease moderates, step to indian domionhood ‘swaraj’ 

• Britain feared instability so adopted a twin task strategy, overview of indian nationalist threat Rowlett act 1919, this extended war efforts with arrests and censorships

What was the Amritsar massacre?

The rowlatt act had the opposite desired effect and incited more rebellions and protests, Army pressence increased in punjab leading to the amritsar massacre

• General dyer ordered 50 men to open fire at a peaceful gathering in the gardens, there were 10,000 people and 1000 were killed.

• Many moderates abandoned loyalty to britain, Dyer was punished by being pushed into retirement and the rowlatt act was repealed in 1922

What was the government of india act 1935? How did Nationalist movements rise?

GB unilateraly expanded the indian franchise and the powers of provincial assemblies (total provincial autonomy) , however this did not appease nationalists who wanted complete independence (purna swaraj)

There were major divisions in nationalist movements

• all india muslim league created and led by Jinnah who wanted a seperate muslim state

• INC led by Gandhi wanted a united state, not all members supported the approach

Britain agreed there needed to be a muslim ‘homeland’ within federal india, this would be needed to protect muslims from hindu oppresson

How did nationalism occur in india during ww2?

• protests were suspended by nationalists in 1939, most indians supported the GB war effort, however defeats encouraged the INC to demand reforms

• In 1942, churchill sent sir stafford cripps to india to promise domion status, however the INC wanted independence. the same year gandhi launched a ‘quit india’ campaign, he was arrested and spent two years in prison

• Britain favoured the muslim league

How did India withdraw from empire and gain independence after the war?

Labour decided to give India independence as it was no longer a feasable asset as by keeping it, violence and rioting could develop and it would place too much pressure on the military

• The INA and pro-independence factions of the army hadn’t provided confidence that Britain could host authority over India 

• India also was no longer a crucial market for goods, The cost of staying was far greater than economic benefits

In 1947, Lord louis Mountbatten was appointed by the government as viceroy, he was tasked with getting India independence by June 1948, he was able to do this by the 15/08/1947 through rapid partition

• This worsened Hindu and Muslim violence as millions tried to migrate between Pakistan and India, 1 million were killed creating a legacy of bitterness

How did British control of Burma change during and after the war?

Burma had previously been a province of India untill 1937, this was to prepare the area for independence, they formed an elected assembly under PM Ba Maw

• Burma had been occupied by Japan in WW2, there had been damages to infrustructure and 1 million killed

• Originally the Burma independence army (BIA) led by Aung san supported japans invasion. However by 1944, they tried to join communist leaders and create the anti-facist organisation after Japan created a puppet state ran by PM and Aung san

By 1945, Britain had restored control of Burma, Sir reginald dorman smith prioritised reconstruction of the country rather than independence

How did Burma withdraw from empire?

• In september 1945, Aung san refused to coorperate with new Burmese army that was desinged to make him leader, Dorman smith had been replaced due to disobedience. - Aung san now ruled an executive council

• In december that same year, Attlee decided that it was no longer feasable to commit troops

• In july 1947, Aung san and other cabinet members are assinated

• On the 4th of Jan 1948, Burma became and independant republic

How did Jewish-Arab tensions rise after 1945 in Palestine?

• The nazi regime caused large-scale migration to Palestine for Jews in 1930s/40s this detirorated relations with the arabs and GB placed limits on immigration

• By 1945, after the holocaust immigration increased, violence occurred in Palestine so GB imprisoned some Jewish migrants in holding camps, this included Jews who had been in concentration camps

• However, international and US opinion favoured Jews and their settlement in Palestine, GB was torn between economic support from the US and retaining Arab allies

How did Britain try and resolve issues between jews and arabs in the area?

• Jewish terrorism was faced by GB troops and increased

• Britain suggested 3 options to prevent civil war

• A unitary state, favoured by arabs and rejected by jews

• a provincial autonomy that was still rejected

• partition of palestine, rejected by arabs but accepted by jews

In feb 1947, GB reffered the issue to the UN, in nov the UN suggests partition escalating the civil war. ON the 15th of may the British mandate ends and a new state of israel is declared

Overall, how was imperial policy constructed after ww1?

GB were left with no option but to disperse powers to nations for slightly more self control, In order to maintain empire, incentives were made to sway nationalists to stay in line

How was the 1919 GoIA constructed to appease the indians?

designed by Viceroy chelmsford and sec of state montagu to create a system of ‘dyarchy’

• The viceroy controlled key services and positions, foreign policy, tax, and defence

• The viceroy’s council was appointed, not elected but they were answerable to the legisltive council.

• the legislative council split into the assembly 104/144 elected and the council of state 34/60 elected

• provincial councils were led by indian ministers and were responsible for education, health, etc

The act was due to be reviewed 10 years later

What did Sir John Simon conclude from his commision in India in 1929?

The commision came into place as the GoIA needed to be reviewed after 10 years, Sir John Simon and other MPs spent most of 1928 in India. There was widescale protests in Lahore with one person being killed as a result. 

The INC created their own constituion under motilal nehru 

They produced the commision report in 1930 suggesting 

• Federal governement with British provinces and princley states, with provinces being given increased powers 

• Defence, security and foreign affairs remain with the viceroy

How were the roundtable conferences organised, who was involved, what conclusions were made?

There was a negative reaction to the simon commision and rapidly increasing support for nationalist groups, the GB govt under labour leader PM Macdonald invited Indian leaders to London for three conferences to try and establish dominion status for India, The first conference lasting to Jan 1931 was undermined by the absence of INC and Gandhi was in prison, he attended the second roundtable claiming to be the sole representitive of all Indian political interests

The conferences failed to reach agreements meaning Britain rejected dominion status, the disputes didn’t suggest they were comptentant to govern

What did the GoIA 1935 impose?

This was the biggest piece of legislation to pass in UK parliment at the time

• This created a federation of India where minorities were protected

• Each province became completly self governing, governers were appointed by Britain and the viceroy could suspend self govt in emergencies

• Franchise was expanded to 35 million

The act was opposed by the INC because it didn’t provide independant self control

• In september 1939 viceroy linlithgow declared war on Germany on behalf of india without consulatation, creating protests

In what two ways did Britain govern African nations?

Indirect rule

• Britain governed protectorates like Uganda, Nyasaland, and Northern Rhodesia

• They also had mandates in countries like Cameroon

Direct rule

• Colones with white settlers were directly governed by British officials with some representation from local white settlers

• e.g Southern Rhodesia

What did policy in Africa centre around? What are examples of these policies?

British policy focused on economic development and increasing economic value. The policies also tried to improve standard of living in Africa

• 1920, £3 million was spent on the gezira cotton scheme, building dams and creating proper irrigation

• In west Africa there was significant investment in schools

How did changes in economics play a role in influencing policy within Africa?

• All projects in Africa were expected to be self fianced through local tax revenue

• However in 1929, the colonial development act provided £1 million of GB funds to support projects across empire

• But, by 1930, the great depression hit African colonies hard with dropping of prices, this in turn, politicised the workers and students and industrial strikes occurred e.g North Rhodeisan copper mines 1935

How were inequalities produced between indigenous peoples and white settlers in countries like Kenya?

Kenya was established as a colony in 1920, out of the former east africa protectorate

• white settlers 1% of the population pushed for self govt, they dominated the legislative council

• White settlers also had power as they were given northern highlands that were highly fertile. this blocked indian settlers and indigenous kikuyu tribes from growing cash crops like coffee

• Many, indigenous people moved to cities like Nairobi, where protest began to grow

This led to the devonshire declaration in 1923, stating the interests of africans had to be respected, leading to some improved educational and agricultural development

What was the continuation of policy favouring white settlers in Africa? What was the statute of westminister?

• In southern Rhodesia, the 2% white population wanted a seperate colony, they presuaded GB to annex them and give them self govt.

• In the union of south africa, white settlers embedded Apartheid into society

The statute of westminister meant that white dominions gained legislative autonomy, white dominance remained in S africa till 1994

How did Herbert Samual try to ease tensions in Palestine?

In 1920, High commisioner Herbert Samual was tasked with easing the conflict and create civil govt

• There was arab sympathy from men on the spot in Palestine, however in London there was strong Jewish sympathy

• Attempted to create an elected body of Arabs and Jews, however this didn’t work as ethnic tension prevented co-operation

How did land ownership and increased Jewish presence create tension?

Most Arabs previously rented from absentee arab landlords to farm, however Jewish settlers were supported from the national fund and evicted Arabs (legal)

• Many enquiries supported restricting jewish land ownership but pro-US and GB support for palestine stopped this

• Nazi persecution of Jews meant that immigration increased and violence escalated

How did Imperial policy change for Palestine in the 1930s?

• In 1936, 20,000 troops were sent to Palestine to stop Arab riots

• In 1937, the peel reported partition with GB owning holy places like jeruselum

• in these years, GB tried to supress arab revolts by killing 100 arab ‘terrorists'

However, policy eased to Palestinians due to fears that there would be Italian attack on Italy, immigration of Jews was restricted to 15,000, Palestine was promised to be independant in 10 years

What was the importance of dominions in the inter-war years?

• Dominions required unique policies and treatment from GB, They played a big role during WW1 so they had increased their desire to become independent

• GB needed to ease costs and keep strong connections so set up the commonwealth of nations, this was based upon imperial ties, cooperating economically and politically, the nations would be united through the Monarch

• Dominions were given ‘independence’ e.g they could pass laws without GB approval, but Britain still reeked benefits of trade

How was the commonwealth created? What occurred at the 1926 and 1930 conferences? what did it lead to?

Heads of governments from dominions came to London to have imperial conferences, At the 1926 conference, the framework for a commonwealth was suggested by Arthur Balfour

This was further developed at the 1930 conference leading to the 1931 statute of westminister, this declared all dominions as independent nation states

What changes occurred within dominions as a result of the statute of Westminister?

• GB laws were no longer enforceable and new legislation could be passed in dominions without GB approval

• The statute was presented as a civilising ‘force’ from Europe 

• This gave an incentive for the dominions to cooperate

What influenced defence policy in Britain, what key problems did Britain face?

Due to ww1, the rise of communism and facism, and great depression, GB had to adapt it’s defence policy

However, Britain faced three key issues

• Economic weakness after ww1, this was worsened by the great depression so the existing scale of the military was tricky to maintain

• In the 1930s there were also threats of european and asian powers like Japan and Germany

• Also, GB had to prep for nationalist movements such as India

How did Britain change it’s strategy through the 1920s-1930s, what dual approach did the govt take?

In the 1920s Britain relied on the league of nations to create stability and promote disarment

However, in the early 1930s, there was continued expansion into places like Manchuria from Japan and the Rhineland from Germany, the LoN had failed to restore peace

Britain had it easier from securing positive dominion relationships and easing tensions in places like India (GoIA 1935), the govt took a dual approach

• targeted (limited rearment)

• Appeasement

What examples are there of appeasement and rearmament?

• to appease Germany, the 1935 Anglo-German naval agreement accepted German naval expansion but it could not exceed 1/3rd of the RN which continued to grow

• Britain carried out rearmament by for instance modernising the RAF and setting up bases in empire, e..g £60 million spent in singapore on a naval base

How was defence policy ineffective?

Chamberlain had underestimated ambitions of Germany and Italy, Hitler had ignored appeasement and Britain entered war with Germany

When Japan attacked SE Asia, reinforcements were unhelpful, Singapore fell to the Japanese with only 30k JP troops up against 90k DUKE forces in 1942

However, when the allies won the war, Britain regained it’s SE Asian territories and India was not lost

What were the economic implications of WW1?

• Total cost was £35 billion with £4 billion borrowed from the USA

• 900,000 Britons killed with a reduction of a skilled workforce

• national debt rose from £650 million to £7.4 billion in 1919

• paying interest in national debt absorbed 44% of govt expenses in the 20s

What was the gold standard? How did Britain change and adapt to using the gold standard?

It was established in the mid 1800s with every £ in circulation being backed up by a fixed % of gold in the bank of england, it helped with international free trade and the £ was the strongest currency before WW1

• Britain first removed the gold standard in 1914 and the dollar tripled in value within 12 months

• This weakened Britain compared to the US

• In 1925, Britain returned to the gold standard, however due to financial challenges in 1933, Britain left gold standard in 1931

How did WW1 impact trade and global competitors?

As Britain focused on the war it cut it’s export trade so competitiors like Japan in textiles markets became dominant

Other industries also struggled like ship-building being rivalled in the US, this weakenend Britains position

The sterling had also weakened and the great depression exagerated these issues further

How did WW1 improve India’s economy?

In the short term, due to giving £146 million to the war effort, India experienced inflation but there were long term benefits like;

• growing Indian industry = reducing reliance on Britain

• Indian industry was protected from foreign competition

• + boycott “swedeshi movement on goods”

How did dominions see benefits of ww1 on their economies?

• Canada had modernised its industry, and shifted to greater trade with the USA. New sectors like paper production and hydroelectricity

• By 1921, canadas population had become more urban than rural

• Australia and New Zealand however couldn’t industrialise as much, and relied on GB this meant dominions became more wary and knew they had to trade elsewhere

what two phases of imperial economic policy occurred in the interwar years?

• in the 20s Britain focussed on free trade present in the 1800s which gave them dominance, they returned to gold standard. (Only exception was the colonial development act of 1929)

• The 30s focussed on importance of empire, they increased imports from empire and abandoned gold standard in 1931, imperial trade stayed strong due to the sterling area

What was the sterling area?

• Empire either used £ or a currency fixed to the £

• it provided easier access to GB markets and investment overseas

• It softened impacts of the Great Depression

What was the benefit of imperial trade? What were some of the arguments coming from this?

Exports were still vital to the economy even after industries like textiles collapsed, dominions became more important whilst India became an important supplier of cotton

• some imperialists like lord beaverbrook argued to end free trade whilst dominions opposed full imperial preference (USA)

What was the Ottawa conference of 1932?

The imperial conference was held in Canada reaching a compromise in trade policy, GB decided to apply a 10% tarrif on all imports except crown colonies, GB and dominions would give each other preferential treatment to each others exports

It was a version of imperial preference maintaining empire but also supporting economic development

How did Australia and New Zealand face economic issues due to trade, what issues did other colonies face?

There was a high buying cost for Australia and New Zealand for GB manufactured goods, this was far greater than income from food and raw materials

Many Australia claimed it was economic exploitation and there was growth in the Australian Labour Party that was pro independence

Other colonies also lacked profits, exports like rice from Burma collapsed with prices falling leading to poverty

what were the economic challenges for Britain after WW2?

• cost Britain £120 billion by 1945, the total debt was over £27 billion

• need to rebuild infrastructure and new military commitments to pay for like German occupation and development of NATO after 1949

• New nationalist challenges all over empire

How was British trading impacted as a result of WW2?

• the transatlantic trade route was more important than ever, vital supply line for survival and then victory

• But 11.7 million tons of shipping lost to U boat attacks on merchant navy 54% of fleet in ‘39

• Japanese conquest of SE Africa (1942) cut off supplies like Rubber from Malaya

• They introduced food rationing with limited success

What did Britain do in order to balance its trading economy and pay for the 2nd world war?

• Britain sold 1/3rd of it’s assets that were overseas, as business investments.

• Increased use of west African assets for raw goods and food like tin from nigeria and palm oil

• Borrowed massivley from the US and Canada (lend-lease programme), canada gave 1billion and 3.4 billion of goods

The lend-lease programme came from President roosevelt,

How did Britain benefit from the lend-lease programme? what was agreed in turn for economic support? What were Truman’s views?

The lend lease programme was a US way to support the war effort whilst remaining neutral, between 1941-45 $50 billion of supplies were given

There was an expectation for joint action after the war, with the Bretton woods agreement in july 1944, it was agreed that allies would use a new system of exchange using the $, making it the main trading currency.

After Roosevelt died, President truman was anti-imperialist and was harsh on Britain as he was unwilling to ‘prop up’ the empire

How did US development post-war impact Britain’s economy?

After Japan was defeated after the 1945 bombings, Truman ended the lend-lease deal. John Maynard Keynes was sent to negotiate with the US for continued mutual economic support

• The US decided to loan Britain £900 million in 1946, which was only repaid in 2006

• The only condition placed upon the deal was that Britain had to accept that the £ could be freely converted to $

• This meant that colonies could exchange £ made from products sold into $

This made economic recovery difficult and the bank of England ran out of $ reserves in 6 weeks

How did Britain try and create independent financial stability after US competiton and WW2?

The $ threatened Britain and the £s stability, in response to the sterling crisis of 1947, Britain withdrew from free convertibility, and fixed the £-$ exchange rate to just over $4 

However this failed, Britain had to devalue the pound from £-$4.03 to £-$2.80

What priorities did Britain face domestically?

The new labour government led by Attlee, was tasked to create a welfare state and the NHS. They also had to rebuild infrustructure and many cities were practically flattened like Plymouth and London

Imperial trade was important, but spending was toned down

What was the twin track approach used by Britain in relation to empire after WW2?

Where the costs of imperial dominance outweighed value of colonies, these places were abandoned like India, Palestine, Burma

However, when there was high value in colonies investments were made like in Nigeria and Malaya with goods like Tin and Rubber

What were the two colonial development and welfare acts in 1940, and 1945?

the colonial development and welfare act in 1940 wrote off some colonial debts and provided grants and loans of up to £5 million for development and £500,000 for research. investment expanded with the new twin track approach

the colonial development and welfare act in 1945 increased colonial aid to £120 million over 10 years and required colonies to produce a 10 year development plan explaining how funds will be used

How did Key nationalist leaders rise between 1914-47?

New nationalist leaders emerged from 2/3rd generations of educated individuals

This occurred after key individuals like John Chilembwe after uprising in Nyasaland

What was Gandhi’s background?

Born in 1869, he was born in an upper class, upper caste, hindu family and Gujarat. He trained as a lawyer and practiced in south Africa for 20 years, he faced discrimination and questioned the system. He returned to India in 1915 and became a leader of Indian independence movement in 1921

His followers called him ‘mahatma’ meaning great soul and he followed an approach of peace and co-operation through resistance

What were Gandhi’s philosophies?

• He believed in Satya (truth) and his movements were called Satyagraha (insistence of the truth)

• These ideas were combined with other Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist beliefs like ahimsa (non harm), vegetarianism, and universal love

• He released a book called Hind swaraj (hindu rule for India) based on peaceful resistance to Britain, unified religon in India, ending the caste system, and independence

What are some examples of Gandhi’s earlier campaigns?

• When gandhi practiced law in south Africa he campagined against colonial administrators enabling segregation 

• In 1915, Invited by Gokhale, he returned to India and joined the INC, he travelled around the country and adopted to wearing Kaadi (indian dress)

• He organised protests supporting working class Indians, e.g improving pay for textile workers in Ahmedabad, he won concessions from the British

• He became the leader of the INC after Amritsar in 1920

What are three examples of campaigns Gandhi hosted leading to independence?

• 1920-22, non cooperation, which was called off, strikes and swedeshi movement

• 1930-31, Salt satyagraha, opposed British taxes on salt, organised 400km march

• 1942, Quit India, non-cooperation at the height of WW2, failed in 6 weeks

Gandhi was arrested after each campaign but they attracted support and international awareness

What techniques of moral leadership did Gandhi use?

Gandhi focused on fasting leading to him threatening suicide unless his demands were met. He combined fasting and meditation at his ashram to seek personal truth and inspire peace

• for instance, in 1924, he fasted for 3 weeks to promote Muslim-Hindu unity

• he also spent hours spinning Khadi which was symbolic of his rejection of western values

This led to his supporters regarding him as a saint and a martyr for promoting peace

What was the role of colonial administrators between 1914 and 1947?

Colonial administrators still kept a demanding job maintaining stability with challenges and developing economic value

In 1925 the conservative govt divided the colonial office into the dominion office and the colonial office with each having their own Secretary of State

This meant for instance there were 3 Secretary of states running empire

How did the civil service and colonial administrators try to change in the 1930s?

There was an attempt to improve professionalism in the service, recruits were no longer appointed to one colony and may serve all over empire

Bulk of the recruits were still from public schools but officers were instructed to find people who were open minded and responsible but many still remained close minded and smug

What did Leo Amery try to bring in during the 1920s and 30s? What did Lord passfield also promote?

Leo amery argued for trusteeship for underdeveloped areas in empire like west Africa. Colonial administrators were made to protect indigenous interests and encourage economic growth

The govt appointed Hilton young royal commission to consider combining east and Central African territories

In 1931, the Labour govt with Lord Passfield promoting dual mandate, the bus was the responsibility to both advance colonial people to self govt

The development of colonies meant appointing indigenous elites to rule over colonies meaning less Britons joining the colonial service. By 1945 there were more Indians than Brits

What changed in terms of popular culture during the interwar period?

The key change was the rise in both radio and cinema

• Newspaper circulation had reached it’s peak with most people reading the paper everyday. however, smaller papers were being eaten up by press barons by 1939

• Music halls and variety theatre shows became less popular with more focus on the cinema

• New forms of music like jazz from america

• Walking had become more popular with less land being controlled by the wealthy

How does imperialism link to popular culture?

Overall, British people had become more worldly. This is because more people were literate, mass media presence, etc

However this didn’t mean British people were Pro-empire, many saw it as something that was just behind the scenes still or others thought it cost too much

So in the 1920s and 30s the British govt focused on growing support

What was the empire marketing board? How did they campaign?

Set up by Leo Amery in 1926, the board aimed to support research in Britain and around the empire with over 126 projects funded and promoting imperial trade in an international trading systems

Empire was campaigned for in many ways;

• poster campaigns, radio talks, school lectures, it had a film unit with documentaries like “solid sunshine” (butter in New Zealand)

• Poster campaigns had vibrant modern designs posted in 1700 sites

The board was shut in 1933 when imperial preference was brought in

What are some examples of imperial exhibitions from the interwar years?

British empire exhibition in 1924, Wembley has been developed with the government paying 50% for the exhibition

• it included Wembley stadium, two new stations, funfairs and world pavilions showcasing empire. 18 million visitors in first year

Empire exhibition Scotland in 1938, set up in Glasgow which was a smaller scale version of Wembley.

• focus’s on progress and peace

• 12.8 million visitors despite being the wettest summer on record

What are some examples of NGO promotion of Empire?

• BBC, set up in 1923 under general John reith, pro establishment and pro empire

• BBC radio, 1932 first Christmas broadcasts from the king across empire

How did non government institutions promote empire?

Education embedded empire into the education system. E.g Rudyard Kipling’s poetry was intergrated in English

Universities like SOAS provided training for civil servants

Did empire really fit into popular culture?

No, not really

• Elgars music were drifting out of fashion, they were traditional and pro empire

• American influences dominated cinema, only two real successful movies concerning empire; sanders of the river, and the four feathers from Zoltan Korda

• British cinema was also dominated by comedy like Noel Coward, empire could be used to poke fun at the institution

What is a useful example of a mass participation event trying to promote empire?

Empire day was first celebrated on the 24th of may (queen victoria’s birthday) in 1902, 1 year after her death.

It became an official event in 1916

• In 1958 it was renamed British commonwealth day and in 1966 the date was changed to the 10th of June, the official birthday of Queen Elizabeth the 2nd

What did empire day do? what was it’s significance?

Many children in schools were invested in empire day as well as the four corners of empire. Activities included shakespeare stories, broadcasts from King George, ceremonies and marches. The message to be conveyed as strong and a civilising mission. Many believed in the message but as time went on cracks began to show

How did the message of empire day shift throughout the interwar years?

They were less explicit about their jingoism due to the death and injury as a result of WW1, there was more of a focus of a ‘family of nations’ = commonwealth

Empire day was becoming increasingly popular over empire, with ppts celebrating their local history, culture, costumes, as well as their connection to England

What were different class views on empire in the interwar years?

• Working class experiences increasingly voting for labour and not pro-empire, many placed focus on social reform

• Middle class were paticularly pro internationalism and looked towards groups like the LoN union

How did WW2 impact views towards empire?

Some military personnel would have had greater first hand experience of empire, some would have welcomed the support from the imperial war effort whilst some may question empire like quit india movements

• In september 1939, the government created the ministry of information, responsible for censorship and propaganda

• In the first year of the war the main focus was maintaining moral when many people had a siege mentality

What was the ministry of information’s film unit and what examples are there?

the MoI produced nearly 1500 films (mostly short, informational films) . They promoted celebrating imperial contribution and having empathy to different ethnicities

• 49th parallel (1941) showing strength of germanic commmunities rejecting the nazis

• Africa’s fighting men, (1943) showing a complimation of footage of African servicemen at war

Who was John Chilembwe? What were the consequences of his actions?

John Chilembwe came from a religous background, educated by a missionary named Joesph booth. This led him to become a Baptist leader

Between 1900 and 1914 he campaigned for Africa to keep land in the people’s hands. He also led protests against mass conscription during ww1

He began an uprising in 1915 plotting to kill all white men in the protectorate. Several landowners were beheaded leading to government killing Chilembwe, demolishing his church and executing other conspirators

What other examples are there of resistance to empire in Africa during the interwar years?

Attempted uprising in 1923 in Kenya, the Nandi people were stamped out and elders were deported

How did tensions build in Ireland leading to the Easter rising? What happened from then?

Armed forces were built up on both sides;

• Ulster volunteer force, dedicated to resisting home rule

• Irish volunteers wanted to force home rule through and unite Ireland

The Easter rising was started due to anger towards home rule, there were mass arrests and executions of nationalists sparking the rise of Sinn Féin

• in the 1918 election, SF gained the most seats but instead of attending Westminster they established an Irish assembly and an Irish republic

Britain denied their claim, Guirella war began and the GB gov sent ‘black and tans’

How did Britain try to appease to Ireland? What policies came into place overtime?

• Government of Ireland act 1920, partitioned Ireland into the North and south.

• 1921 Irish-Anglo treaty, the south became a dominion, and northern counties opted out. Nationalists like Eamon de Valera rejected partition beginning a civil war.

• 1931. Statute of Westminster, gave the Irish free state autonomy

• In 1937, De Valera refused to attend imperial conference and drew up constitution for Irish republic = Eire, formally seperated in 1948

What are some examples of protests against Britain in India during the interwar years?

• Ghadar movement set up by Canadian and American Indian nationals to protest British rule, failed attempt in the punjab at protests in 1915, 42 executed

• GoIA 1919 caused protests as well as Rowlatt act - this led to the Amritsar massacre in 1919. The INC declared that Britain had lost moral authority to rule India

What movement did Gandhi begin? What was the Chauri-Chaura incident?

Gandhi began his non cooperation movement to challenge the Raj through peaceful means - moral argument, British will withdraw as they will realise they are wrong

In February 1922 the Chauri-Chaura incident led to 22 policeman being killed in a fire, after they shot 3 protesters. Gandhi fasted for a week and called off the protest as he didn’t believe the Indian people could follow ahimsa. He was then arrested and imprisoned for two years

How did Indian movements remove British raj? How much of a challenge were the movements?

Campaigns developed in India like the Salt works satyagraha leading to some violence in 1930. It was easy to control Gandhi’s satyagraha’s as they were no violent e.g quit India campaign stopped in 6 weeks

The Cripps mission of 1942 was rejected by all nationalists, clashes increased after WW2 so Britain withdrew

What were relations like with Egypt in the interwar years?

In March 1919, Zaghloul had been exciled to Malta promoting widespread protests, they began civil disobedience and riots

GB attacked villages and railways were destroyed, eventually he was released, leading to in 1921 Milner coming to Egypt to have talks about the future

• Egypt was given independence, however they had no control over Sudan or the Sue, the GB military remained present

How was nationalism prominant in Asia in the inter-war years?

• Burmese nationalists organised in the early 1930s, they were left by left wing intellectuals like Aung San forming the ‘Thakins’ they became more dominant in the 30s and when Burma became a seperate colony in 1937. this evolved into the Burma national army during WW2

• In malaya, nationalism was slower due to the wide range of groups, muslims, chinese, malay, socialists, etc. After ww2 when Britain returned these groups formed larger more powerful parties