AP Psychology Master File

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

CAT scan

a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Phrenology

the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.

Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

a semipermeable network of cells in the lining of the capillaries of the brain that prevent harmful substances from entering. Researchers working to treat brain diseases such as Parkinson's must develop drugs that are capable of crossing the it. If a drug can't cross the it, it will not be able to effect the problem inside the brain.

cortical localization

The notion that different functions are located or localized in different areas of the brain; also called localization of function.

left hemisphere

Controls the right side of the body. Associated with language and logical thinking abilities

lateralization of function

the notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain

spatial ability

capabilities associated with visual and mental representation and manipulation of objects in space. This is a right hemisphere brain function

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

forebrain

The largest and most complex brain region, which contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes also called the cerebrum

cerebral cortex

the wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain, which contains the most sophisticated brain centers

corpus callosum

A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them.

split brain surgery

procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures

Temporal Lobe

process auditory information

Frontal lobe

largest lobe; processes voluntary muscle movements, involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control. The left prefrontal cortex is the most sophisticated planning and thinking area.

motor cortex (primary motor cortex)

Controls voluntary movement. Located on the frontal lobe.

somatosensory cortex (sensory cortex)

Receives information about body sensations. Located on the parietal lobe.

Parietal lobe

Processes sensations such as temperature, pressure, and information from muscles and joints

occipital lobe

Processes visual information

Broca's area

speech production

Wernicke's area

language comprehension

midbrain

Relay station for auditory and visual information and helps to localize sound. Substantia Nigra is part of this area for movement and has a large concentration of Dopamine receptors

aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). Broca's aphasia aka productive aphasia limits speaking ability, where Wernicke's aphasia aka comprehensive aphasia limits language comprehension.

Limbic system

A group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and are involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory. The hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and thalamus are all a part of it.

Amygdala

involved in emotion and memory, "fight or flight"

hippocampus

involved in forming new memories

hypothalamus

maintains homeostasis, links endocrine system to the brain by influencing the pituitary gland.

thalamus

processes information from all senses except the sense of smell. Acts as a relay center to other areas.

hindbrain

A region at the base of the brain that contains several structures that regulate basic life functions.

medulla

controls vital life functions such as heart rate and breathing

pons

helps coordinate movement on each side of the body

Reticular Formation AKA Reticular Activating System

located in the center of the medulla, helps to regulate attention and sleep

cerebellum

muscle coordination, maintaining balance and equilibrium. Coordinates rapid voluntary movement.

Neuron

Highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell

sensory neuron (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neuron (efferent)

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

glial cells

Support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; manufacture myelin.

dendrites

Multiple short fibers that extend from the neuron's cell body and receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells

cell body (soma)

Processes nutrients and provides energy for the neuron to function; contains the cell's nucleus

axon

The long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron's messages to other body areas.

myelin sheath

A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed. Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that unmyelinates axons and creates difficulty in communication throughout the body.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.

axon terminal

The endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored

terminal buttons (aka synaptic vesicles)

The specific area of the axon terminals that house the neurotransmitters

synapse

Gap between neurons that neurotransmitters travel across to send messages

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. When a neuron "fires". Sodium gates open and allow for an exchange with the Potassium ions inside the neuron to create the electric impulse.

mnemonic: when the toilet is flushing

resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse. It has the ability to "fire"

mnemonic: like the toilet filled with water ready to be flushed

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated until the neuron has recharged or reset

mnemonic: like the toilet refilling with water

all or none law

principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or it does not fire at all

mnemonic: the toilet either flushes or it doesn't, there is no half flushing

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

synaptic transmission

the process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect adjoining neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. In other words, after sending a message the neurotransmitter returns to its synaptic vesicle that it was released from.

myasthenia gravis (MG)

is a chronic autoimmune disease that causes muscle weakness. It occurs when the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the nerve-muscle junction, blocking the chemical that signals muscles to contract. This results in weakness in the muscles that control the eyes, mouth, throat, and limbs.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. It's characterized by inflammation and damage to the myelin sheath, which is the protective material around nerve cells. This damage can slow or block messages between the brain and body, leading to a range of symptoms.

excitatory message

increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate and generate an action potential

ex. Norepinephrine

inhibitory message

decrease the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate and generate an action potential

ex. GABA

Agonist

a substance that is chemically similar to a neurotransmitter and that will often mimic the functions of that substance

-Nicotine/Caffeine and ACh

-Prozac and the availability of Serotonin

antagonist

a substance that inhibits or interferes with neurotransmitters

-Naloxone (Narcan) and Opiate receptors

-Atropine (nerve gas antidote) and ACh

-Botulin (used in botox) and ACh

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and learning.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. Linked to Alzheimer's

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, and rewarding sensations. Too little is linked to Parkinson's and too much is linked to Schizophrenia. Also linked to drug addiction as certain drugs such as cocaine influence its receptors.

serotonin

neurotransmitter that is linked to emotions and sleep

GABA

A neurotransmitter that inhibits or reduces brain activity. Too little is linked to anxiety. Some anti-anxiety medications work by increasing the amount of it available.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter that serves as the body's natural pain killer. Linked to opiate addiction.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

spinal reflex

A simple automatic action of the spinal cord not requiring involvement of the brain, such as the knee-jerk reflex

ex. You touch something hot and automatically pull your hand away and experience the pain afterwards when it is finally processed in the brain. The act of reflexively pulling your hand away is called the spinal reflex and is processed in the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

somatic nervous system

The division of the PNS that involves voluntary movement and communicating sensory information

autonomic nervous system

The division of the PNS that involves involuntary actions

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fight or flight situations)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and restores normal functioning (rest and digest)

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure (structural plasticity) and function (functional plasticity) of many cells in response to experience or trauma. In other words, a person's brain can make new connections or find new ways to allow a person to complete a task when the original pathway is damaged due to brain trauma.

Hormones

Chemicals that are released into the bloodstream that influence things such as growth, metabolism, and energy levels for example.

pituitary gland

Regulates activities of several other glands and is sometimes called the "master gland" because of this. Produces human growth hormone

Executive Function

This includes the ability to control emotions and behavior, plan, and reason logically.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Trial and Error

A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.

Algorithm

A problem-solving strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method that inevitably produces the correct solution.

ex. Following step by step instructions to build a piece of furniture

heuristic

a problem-solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions

availability heuristic

a strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated on the basis of how readily available other instances of the event are in memory

ex. A friend gets pulled over for speeding on Franklin Street and you choose to make sure to drive the speed limit, especially in that area

representativeness heuristic

a strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event

ex. A middle aged person in a minivan deciding to speed because they don't fit the "prototype" of a person that would get pulled over for speeding.

ex. I answered "A" for the first five questions on the quiz so I went back and changed a couple of them that I wasn't 100% sure of because my prototype of multiple choice assessments is that answers vary.

prototype

the most typical instance of a particular concept

ex. Your’s of a dog might be a bulldog because that's the first thing that comes to mind when you think of the category of "dog"

insight learning

The sudden realization of how a problem can be solved.

Wolfgang Kohler Studied this with chimpanzees. Found that beyond following a system of rewards and punishment (known as operant conditioning) animals, like humans, were capable of it. The chimps were presented with a number of items in a room and had to figure out how to reach the food that was hanging from the ceiling.

intuition

coming to a conclusion or making a judgment without conscious awareness of the thought processes involved

mental set

the tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past

functional fixedness

The tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way.

ex. A person only views a fork as something used to eat with and does not realize that it could also help them loosen the stubborn knot in their shoe laces.

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out information that "confirms" or goes along with a person's existing beliefs

ex. A person with conservative beliefs chooses to watch Fox News to confirm their existing beliefs. Another person with liberal beliefs chooses to watch CNN to confirm their existing beliefs.

belief bias (aka belief perseverance)

the tendency to accept only information that goes along with a person's existing beliefs

ex. A person chooses to ignore information about the negatives of caffeine intake and chooses to accept information about the positives because they are a coffee drinker

fallacy of positive instances

a specific example of confirmation bias where people seek out or remember instances that confirm their beliefs and forget instances that do not confirm their beliefs

ex. A person believes that every time they take a test, they forget a number 2 pencil. The reality is probably that they just don't remember all the times they do have a pencil because those times are not stressful..

hindsight bias

the tendency, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.

ex. After a play goes poorly in an NFL game, people will routinely say that "they should have passed" or "they should have run". It's easy to have the solution when you already know the outcome.

Mental Set

The tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past. Ex. When the computer stops functioning properly a person unplugs it and plugs it back in. This is considered an obstacle to problem solving because while it may work (at least most of the time), it may not be the best or fastest solution or even the most permanent one.

Perceptual Set

The mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Ex. In a study with preschool students, children preferred french fries 6-1 when they were served in a McDonald's bag instead of a plain white bag. The mental predisposition was the the ones in the McDonald's bag would taste better, even before they were eaten.

Framing Effect

The way in which information is presented can sway decision making or opinions. ex. "What kind of hat was the man wearing"? Instead of "How was the man dressed"?

false concensus effect

The overestimation of the extent others share our opinions.

Ex. A producer that loves a new song she has created with an artist may overestimate how much others will also like that song.