The Early Modern Time Period - Exploration, Scientific Revolution, & Enlightenment

Geocentric Theory

Before the Scientific Revolution, the belief that the Earth was a stationary object at the center of the universe.

Heliocentric Theory

The model proposed by Copernicus stating that the sun is at the center of the universe and the planets revolve around it.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish astronomer who pioneered the heliocentric theory but delayed publishing his book until his deathbed.

Johannes Kepler

Mathematician who proved the heliocentric theory and discovered that planets move in elliptical (oval) orbits, not perfect circles.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who used a telescope to discover Jupiter's moons and the moon's rough surface, directly challenging Church authority.

Isaac Newton

Scientist who formulated the Law of Universal Gravitation and viewed the universe as a giant, orderly clock.

Empiricism

The experimental method of relying on direct observation and data rather than ancient tradition or faith.

Scientific Method

A logical, step-by-step procedure for gathering and testing ideas using hypotheses, experiments, and data.

Thomas Hobbes

Thinker who believed humans are naturally selfish and cruel, requiring an absolute monarchy to maintain order.

Leviathan

Thomas Hobbes' book arguing for a massive, all-powerful ruler to keep human nature in check.

John Locke

Thinker who argued people are born free with natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Consent of the Governed

John Locke's idea that a government's power comes entirely from the approval of the people it rules.

Right to Rebel

Locke's concept that if a government fails to protect natural rights, the citizens can legally overthrow it.

Philosophes

French social critics and thinkers during the Enlightenment who applied reason to society.

Voltaire

French philosophe who fiercely defended freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and liberty using wit and satire.

Montesquieu

Thinker who advocated for the Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances to prevent government tyranny.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Thinker who championed individual freedom and direct democracy, believing laws should reflect the general will.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian reformer who argued for the abolition of torture, capital punishment, and for speedy trials.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Enlightenment writer who fought for women's rights and argued that women need equal education to be useful.

Salons

Wealthy living-room social gatherings in Paris where thinkers, artists, and scientists met to debate ideas.

Denis Diderot

Philosophe who created the Encyclopedia, a massive compilation of essays that spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe.

Neoclassical

The artistic and architectural style of the Enlightenment that was simple, elegant, and inspired by ancient Greece and Rome.

Enlightened Despots

Absolute monarchs who used Enlightenment ideas to reform and modernize their countries without giving up absolute power.

Frederick the Great

King of Prussia who called himself the "first servant of the state," reduced torture, but refused to free the serfs.

Joseph II

Radical King of Austria who abolished serfdom and granted freedom of worship, though his reforms were undone after his death.

Catherine the Great

Empress of Russia who admired the Enlightenment but crushed peasant rebellions and gave nobles total power over serfs.