AP Psychology: 4.4-4.7 (7)

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychodynamic Theory

A psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts, originating from Freud’s theories.

Psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; also, a therapeutic technique used to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

Free Association

A psychoanalytic technique in which a person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing, to explore the unconscious.

Id

The part of the unconscious mind that seeks to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle.

Ego

The rational part of personality that mediates between the id and superego, operating on the reality principle.

Superego

The part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment, striving for perfection.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious protective behaviors that reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality or facts to protect oneself from experiencing anxiety.

Displacement

Shifting aggressive or sexual impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person.

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors or feelings in a way that avoids the true reasons for them.

Reaction Formation

Acting in a manner opposite to one’s true feelings to reduce anxiety.

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to stress.

Repression

Burying distressing thoughts and feelings in the unconscious.

Sublimation

Redirecting socially unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities.

Projective Tests

Personality assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective test that uses inkblots to analyze a person’s inner feelings based on their interpretations.

Preconscious

The part of the mind containing thoughts and memories that are not currently in awareness but can be easily retrieved.

Unconscious

The part of the mind that holds thoughts, memories, and desires not consciously accessible but influencing behavior.

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung’s theory that a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history influences human behavior.

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective that emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.

Unconditional Positive Regard

A caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude that Carl Rogers believed fosters self-awareness and growth.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The drive to fulfill one’s full potential and achieve personal growth.

Social-Cognitive Theory

A perspective that views behavior as influenced by interactions between people’s traits and their social environment.

Behavioral Approach

A perspective emphasizing how the environment shapes behavior through conditioning.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

Self

The core of an individual’s personality, involving self-awareness and self-perception.

Self-Concept

A person’s understanding and evaluation of themselves.

Self-Efficacy

One’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-Esteem

One’s overall sense of self-worth.

The Spotlight Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others notice and evaluate our appearance and actions.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to perceive oneself favorably, often attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Traits

Characteristic patterns of behavior and conscious motives that define personality.

Personality Inventory

A questionnaire used to assess personality traits.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely used and researched personality test designed to identify emotional disorders.

The Big Five Theory (Big Five Factors)

A model identifying five broad dimensions of personality

Agreeableness

The personality trait associated with being kind, sympathetic, and cooperative.

Openness to Experience

The trait involving imagination, curiosity, and a preference for novelty.

Extraversion

The trait associated with sociability, energy, and enthusiasm.

Conscientiousness

The tendency to be organized, responsible, and disciplined.

Emotional Stability (Neuroticism)

The extent to which a person experiences emotional instability and negative emotions.

Personality Inventories

Standardized tests designed to measure personality traits.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items (factors) on personality tests.

Motivation

The process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-directed behaviors.

Physiological Need

A basic bodily requirement, such as food, water, or sleep.

Homeostasis

The tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

Incentives

External stimuli that motivate behavior.

Belongingness

The human need for social connections and acceptance.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A theory proposing that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

Drive-Reduction Theory

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives an organism to satisfy that need.

Arousal Theory

The theory that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

Optimal Level of Arousal

The level of mental stimulation at which people perform best.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which it decreases.

Self-Determination Theory

A theory that emphasizes intrinsic motivation and the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by internal rewards, such as enjoyment or personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards, such as money or grades.

Instincts

Innate behaviors that are biologically determined rather than learned.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

A model describing different types of motivational conflicts individuals experience.

Approach-Approach Conflict

A situation in which a person must choose between two desirable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A situation involving a decision that has both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

A situation in which a person must choose between two undesirable options.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

A theory suggesting that people vary in their need for novel and intense experiences.

Experience Seeking

The desire for new and unique experiences.

Thrill/Adventure Seeking

The pursuit of excitement and physical challenges.

Disinhibition

The tendency to seek out social stimulation and uninhibited experiences.

Boredom Susceptibility

A tendency to become easily bored and seek constant excitement.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that regulate physiological and behavioral processes.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Glucose

A simple sugar that serves as the body’s main energy source.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure involved in regulating hunger, thirst, and other homeostatic functions.

Pituitary Gland

The “master gland” of the endocrine system, regulating growth and other hormonal functions.

Emotion

A complex psychological state involving subjective experience, physiological arousal, and expressive behaviors.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions.

Behavior-Feedback Effect

The theory that behavior can influence emotions and attitudes.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

The idea that emotions are based on an individual’s interpretation of a situation.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

A theory suggesting that positive emotions expand thinking and build personal resources.

Polygraph

A machine used to detect physiological responses associated with lying.

Universal Emotions

Emotions that are recognized across cultures, including happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.

Paul Ekman

A psychologist known for his research on universal facial expressions.

Display Rules

Cultural norms that dictate how emotions should be expressed.

Elicitors

Events or stimuli that trigger emotional responses.