Psych 3rd 3rd

Social psychology — we are social species

Solitary species vs social species (humans only ability)

• Our ability to cooperate is one of the major reasons we succeed as a species

• But comes with strings attached

Social Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies how individuals think about, influence and relate to other people

Misinfos about social psychology

• Most view being influenced as weakness (they shouldn’t)

• Most believe highly resistant to social pressures (they’re wrong)

• In certain cases, both tendencies could be a “strength”

• Achieve group cohesion + finish tasks

• We are continually participating in social networks

Social networks

• Humans have history of working in small groups (e.g. tribes) (~150 members, according to Dunbar)

• Quantity not all that matters — quality matters too

• While overall network large, number of close relationships modest

• Networks can change with time (technology, stress, age)

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Predicts older adults have fewer relationships — based on different motives (i.e. emotion regulation)

• older —→ emotional regulation

• young —→ many reasons

Need to belong theory

Humans have a fundamental drive to form/maintain relationships

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Absence of relationships might be harmful

• Solitary confinement in prison + lockdowns (effects differ by age)

• quality of relationships also matter

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Few experimental studies of isolation (most are correlational)

• one study only 1 of 5 subjects lasted > 3 days

• subjects given belief they would end up alone showed unhealthy behaviours, procrastination, impaired cognition

Loneliness

Loneliness is related to, but distinct from, isolation

• isolation = lack of social contact, not necessarily bad

• loneliness = feeling lack of connection, inherently negative

• both related to health outcomes (mental, physical)

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Reports of loneliness increasing (“epidemic”)

• Before COVID: 1/3, with 1/12 cases being severe

• we spend more time alone now

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Not easily treatable

• forced interaction

• support networks

• social skills training

Being a part of a group can change your behavior

Groups: Social contagion

When a belief rapidly spreads throughout a group

• though is often pejorative (not bad or good), impact depends on belief

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Related term: mass hysteria

• Large group, behaviors both irrational and harmful

• Many potential examples

  • Urban legends, UFO reports

  • emotional contagions well-accepted; clinical contagions (e.g. dissociative identity disorder and depression) suggested but more controversial

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Affected person claims to have at least two identities

• may alternatively display

• memory impairment of prior states common

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More common in women (reason unknown)

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Controversial

• cultural factors

• improper interventions

• misdiagnosed?

Groups: Social loafing

Tendency to put in less effort/do less work in groups

• Possible variation of bystander effect (e.g. diffusion of responsibility)

• Many examples:

  • cheerleaders less loud in groups

  • pull less hard on rope

  • generate fewer/less creative ideas

• May be less evident in collectivist societies

Groups: Deindividuation

Engage in behavior atypical for us but consistent w/contextual norms

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Key factors are a feeling of anonymity and lack of accountability

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Example: behaviour when masked

• child wearing masks more likely to take ‘forbidden candy’

• presence of mirror may reduce

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Major potential examples: online behavior, crowd behavior, stanford prison study

1 – Online behavior

Sometimes cute + funny (e.g. hijacking online polls and voting for ridiculous options)

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Sometimes cruel + terrifying (e.g. cyber-bullying)

• males more frequent perpertrators

• associated with psychological + academic problems in victims

• common: much wider age spectrum

Online behavior — cont.

Though it often involves deindividuation, it does not require it

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In some cases: people used real identities and articulated real beliefs

• Typical behavior, no anonymity but possibility of accountability

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Motivating factor is likely a desire to enforce certain ideals: cultural, political and religious values

• think youre speaking the truth

2 – Deindividuation in Crowds

• People routinely gather in large groups

• One of the most striking example of this is protests

  • Many throughout history, some of which include 10 000+ people in one place

• Most crowds and protests are peaceful

3 – The Stanford Prison Study

Observational, not experimental

• 24 participants randomly assigned to roles of prisoner/guard, head of study was superintendent

• people reportedly became consumed in roles, losing identity and behaving atypically

• very popular and controversial

The Stanford Prison Study — cont.

Though initially most participants believed that they were incapable of cruelty, cruel behaviors did emerge

• Some guards (~33%) showed aggressive and concerning behaviors (humiliation, do push-ups, strip naked and clean toilets with bare hands)

• supposed to be two weeks but was ended after six days

Criticisms of stanford prison study

• Small sample size (n)

• Selection bias (whoever responded to the ad)

• Demand characteristics (some ideas of what the experimenter wants) + observer effect (know experimenter is watching)

• Emphasis on qualitative, anecdotal reports: difficult to verify and analyze quantitatively

• Experimenter (Zimbardo) was involved (superint.)

• Numerous ethical issues (never fully repeated)

When discussing influence…Obedience and conformity

Obedience: Listening to a figure of authority (e.g. a persuasive politician or a strong sergeant)

• generally explicit

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Conformity: Adopting the predominant belief or behavior of a group due to pressure from that group

• generally implicit

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Not by themselves bad

• issues from blindly following without asking questions

Obedience: Milgram’s story

• Child of Jewish parents who grew up through World War 2

• Preoccupied with atrocities of Holocaust and wondered how people could commit such horrific acts

• Prevailing view at the time was such acts were due to “twisted minds” (bad people do bad things)

• However, Milgram’s research suggested that situational factors could have also played a role (bad situations, rather than bad people)

Milgram Experiment

• (E) is an experimenter overseeing everything

• Participant acts as a teacher (T) who asks the learner (L) questions

• (T) is told to give (L) a shock for wrong answers*

• (L) is an actor who pretends to be shocked and protests to the shocks

(confederate: working with the study)

Important Factors of Milgrim experiment — saying no

Proximity + contact with learner reduced willingness to give shocks

Some participants stopped complying as intensity increased (15 to 450V), but majority (66%) stayed

When a confederate scientist was present and disagreed with the experimenter, compliance was 0%

• value of dissenting voices

• when someone else disagrees, more comfortable disagreeing ourselves

Important Factors of Milgrim experiment — performance

• No major cultural differences or gender differences

• Compliance is not related to sadistic tendencies, but is related to other traits (obedience and authoritarianism)

• Failure to comply is related to moral development, though this relationship is not especially strong

• Despite many increasing criticism of late (e.g. ethics, internal validity), it does have value

Conformity: Asch’s study on conformity

Subjects participated in a study w/several confederates

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Subject had to declare which of 3 lines was longer

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Before the subject made their judgement, they heard several confederates make an incorrect judgment

• subjects readily conformed to wrong opinion

• rates of conformity increased w/group size to a point (ceiling effect)

On conformity

• We all show some capacity; the question is how much and how often

• Low self-esteem predicts high conformity

• Cultural differences possible; conformity may be greater in collectivist cultures than in individualistic cultures

• Gender differences in conformity are disputed

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Index reflects the degree to which people are integrated into groups

• High index of individualism = individualistic society

• Low index of individualism = collectivist society

Individualism vs. Collectivism — details

Western societies — tend toward individualism

Eastern societies — tend toward collectivism

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May infulence many behaviors

• family attitudes

• facial expressions

• prosocial behaviors

• creativity

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Must avoid stereotypes and focus on what is scientifically proven

• findings often controversial

Cults

Groups with intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause

• NXIVM, heaven’s gate, etc

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Difficult to study due to secretive nature

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Several consistent features:

• persuasive leader who inspires loyalty

• members disconnected from outside world

• questions/dissent discouraged

• training practices that gradually indoctrinate members

Misconceptions of cults

• Cults are easy to identify and define

• Most cults are dangerous to others

  • most peaceful to others, even if harmful to members

• Most people in cults are mentally ill (FAE)

  • 33% (higher than normal), most cult leaders are mentally ill

• Brainwashing is required (controversial)

Prosocial behavior

Voluntary behavior for the benefit of others (e.g. friends, family, strangers or enemies)

Assume altruistic (unselfish concern) = prosocial

Prosocial behaviors are associated w/higher psychological + physical well-being in the helper

• feels good to be good

What about punishment?

Just punishments can also be regarded as prosocial

• discourage bad behavior, benefits group

• educate transgressor

• costly punishments (punisher pays a cost to deliver punishment) percieved as more legitimate

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Controversial idea

• punishment may not be based on universal principles; could simply be defensive response to your community being attacked

Predicting prosociality

• Mood (esp. good moods)

• Timing (when not rushed)

• Potential for escape (likely to help if we can’t leave)

• Background (e.g. doctor, nurse…)

• Trait extroversion and empathy

• Characteristics of the person in need (matching)

• Egotistic reasons (relieving personal distress, joy of others we’ve helped, image of being a “better person”)

Bystander effect

Reduced likelihood to assist others when in groups

Many explanations

• pluralistic ignorance (maybe its not really a problem)

• diffusion of responsibility (someone else will do it)

• cost of intervention, physical or psychological (feelings of judgement/vulnerability)

Among the strongest and most replicable effects

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm others, either verbally or physically

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Most real-world studies are observational

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Most laboratory studies use different measures (i.e. a test), do not resemble aggression in real world (e.g. assault)

• unethical otherwise

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Degree and severity affected by many factors

Aggression is more likely if…

• Male, especially for direct aggression (w/confrontation)

• Provocation by the individual (specific)

• Overall frustration (non-specific)

• Physiological arousal (w/provocation + frustration)

• Reinforced by media (e.g. television, video games) and cues (e.g. guns)

• Alcohol and temperature

Aggression and Temperature

Relationship holds in many countries and for many types of aggression, including severe (assaults) and mild acts (beanballs in baseball — throwing ball at batters face)

Heuristics

An approach to decision-making, problem-solving or discovery

We are faced with many problems, must make many important decisions quickly

Heuristics are useful

• can be executed quickly, dont require lots of information

• but, arent always accurate

Heuristics examples

Availability heuristic — what kind of info used to make a decision?

• recent

• frequent

• extreme

• vivid

• negative

Representativeness Heuristic

Our tendency to organize information based on similarity of that information to already established categories

• can be useful to extent (sorting objects)

• applied to people can be problematic

Representativeness Heuristic — example

Stereotyping

• Can lead to prejudicial and discriminatory behavior

• All have some risk for stereotyping

• All benefit from experience, can affect thoughts, feelings and behaviors

• If aware of a stereotype, can change behavior.

  • however, not always aware of the stereotypes

Implicit discrimination

Driven by associations of which individual is unaware (implicit associations)

Learned associations may influence unconscious processing and drive decision-making

One measure — implicit associations test (IAT)

• many variations, critical is measurement of response time

implicit associations test — IAT

Subjects shown word or image — categorize it into one of two groups by hitting a key (“E” or “I”)

• response time and keystroke logged

• info comfortable with tends to be delivered quickly

• differences in response time may reflect implicit associations (which could be biases)

Criticism of the IAT

Test-retest reliability concerns

Correlation to discriminatory behavior unclear

However, it has been argued that

• weak effects become important on the societal level

• IAT could be combined with other tests

Population scores change over time

Group biases

Biases emerge even if the groups involved are relatively new and based on arbitrary criteria

• dot counting (Tajfel’s minimal group paradigm)

• eye color (elliot’s original classroom study)

• ingroup vs outgroup

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Can be counteracted partially

• Forced cooperation (e.g. Robber’s cave study)

• Increased contact (e.g. Jigsaw Classrooms), provided proper context

Stereotype Threat

Stereotypes might not just affect judgment of others, but our own behavior

• Stereotype threat fear of fulfilling a stereotype in a task negatively affects performance of that task

• Meta-analysis suggest effect smaller than expected

Attributions

In theory, outcome of any event in a person’s life is due to the interaction of two factors: their traits and their environment

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In dispositional attribution, outcome explained by trait

• bad grades due to poor work ethic and low intelligence

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In situational attribution, outcome explained by environment

• bad grades because tragedy happened

Fundamental attribution error

When evaluating others, we consistently overestimate the role of dispositional factors

• one of the most relevant and consistent findings in the field

Famous FAE experiment

• Subjects randomly assigned to debate pro- and anti-Castro positions

• Afterwards, each debater submitted a rating of other debater’s beliefs

• Even though the participants knew speech assignment was random, they assumed the debaters agreed with the ideas that they presented

On FAE

• Major reason for not including situational factors in evaluation of others is that we are unaware of them

• Relavent to our view of world history: often fail to consider the unique situational factors that world leaders had at time of decision making

• Bias may be lower in collectivist and greater in individualistic

Defensive Attributions

We particularly overemphasize dispositional factors when we succeed and overemphasize situational factors we fail (self-serving bias)

• common in individualistic cultures (Western) where there is emphasis on achievements

• self-serving biases might negatively affect performance (dont make right adjustments)

General criteria for a disorder

Statistical rarity

• uncommon

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Subjective distress

• low quality of life, poor mental well-being

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Impairment

• cognition, emotional regulation, attention

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Biological dysfunction

• significant abnormalities in nervous system

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Significant exceptions can exist, role of context

“Types” of Disorders

• Cluster structure

• Descriptive, not mechanistic

• Not strongly supported

Man-made invention

Major perspectives on Disorders – 1

A disorder (e.g. schizophrenia) is an invented classification, may not perfectly capture everything

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We group things (human categories), but our groups may not reflect those naturally exist (natural kinds)

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Disorders are likely heterogenous

• many subtypes, with variability in causes, features, outsomes, treatment responses, etc

Major perspectives on Disorders – 2

Disease model

• something biological “causes” disorder, causing symptoms

• single symptom can be a suitable measurement

• severity of symptoms ~ severity of disorder

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Useful but not perfect

• symptoms variable in number, frequency, and intensity

• “cause” unclear

Major perspectives on Disorders – 3

Network model

• disorder is an interaction between symptoms

• multiple symptoms must be studied

• related: dynamical systems approach

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New, needs refinement

• data collection + analysis more complex

• validity less clear

Misconceptions on Models

1. Diagnosis is categorizing people (pigeon-holing)

• person does not lose individuality with diagnosis

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2. Diagnoses are unreliable (experts never agree)

• clinicians agree on many disorders, some are hard to diagnose

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3. Diagnoses are invalid

• diagnoses can predict outcomes

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4. Diagnoses negatively impact a person’s life

• in right context (supportive environment), diagnosis helps

Diagnosing Disorders

Requires interview assessment from professional using standardized, evidence-based guidelines

• diagnostic criteria from the DSM could guide diagnosis

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Biological tests may be done to exclude other problems (e.g. thyroid)

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Biological tests do not usually inform diagnosis

• neuroimaging (brain structure/function) not typically used

• view of disorders as “brain disorders” is impractical

• genetic testing rarely used, but family history can be

DSM-5 Features

~300+ disorders

Biopsychosocial approach

• biological, psychological (thinking patterns), societal factors (culture)

DSM-5 Criticisms

• Not all disorders meet validity criteria

• Vagueness may lead to “pathologization” of normal behavior

• Categorical (binary; either/or) rather than dimensional

• Comorbidities (share root cause)

• Concerns about lack of transparency, pace of preparation, conflicts of interest

Anxiety disorders

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

2. Panic Disorder

3. Phobias

• ~4% of people may suffer (mostly phobias)

• related but now independent: obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

1 – GAD Generalized Anxiety Disorder

• Exaggerated worry/tension in day-to-day situations

• May later lead to emergence of other disorders (network model)

• More common in females than males

2 – Panic Disorders

Characterized by recurrent episodes of intensive fear (w/sweating, dizziness, light headaches, breathing difficulty, heart irregularities)

• while many report single panic attack, in disorder the attacks are repeated and unexpected

• emerges eary in adulthood

3 – Phobias

Most common of all anxiety disorders

• intense, irrational fear of specific thing

• may be outgrowth of panic disorder

• agoraphobia (fear of marketplaces or crowded environments)

4 – OCD

Obsessions are persistent thoughts that are unwanted and/or cause stress

• centered topics: sex, contamination, aggression, religion

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Compulsions are repetitive behaviours undertaken to reduce distress and relieve shame/guilt

• washing hands

• re-reading sentences

What causes anxiety? Learning/Behaviorist perspective

Classical conditioning mechanisms

• CS/UCS —→ CS signals UCS —→ CS leads to CR

• cars + accident, car signals accident, car causes fear

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Operant conditioning mechanisms

• If cars (S-) give anxiety, may avoid (R)

• avoiding = less anxiety, motivated to continue avoiding (increase in R)

• maintenance of fear through negative reinforcement

What causes anxiety? Other factors

• Possible role of genetics — show some heritability

• Rate of anxiety (& depression) rising — environment changes likely factor

• Nature of envrionmental influence debated — digital tech, free play in childhood, occupation, relationships

What is depression?

• Loss of interest or pleasure in activities normally enjoyed (e.g. anhedonia)

• Decreased energy (e.g. fatigue)

• Feelings of guilt or low self-worth

• Disturbed sleep, appetite and activity

• Inability to concentrate

• Thoughts of suicide

Product of life

Global burden of depression

~5% of population 1, higher rates in young cohorts

• Associated with lower quality of life, suicide, other poor outcomes, significant economic cost

• Leading cause of disability worldwide

• Good news: normally treatable (70 – 80% of cases)

Types of Depression

Unipolar depressive disorder

• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD; chronic)

• Major Depressive Episodes (MDE; acute but often recurrent)

Post-partum depression

Dysthymia

Seasonal affective disorder

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Depressive episodes also occur in bipolar disorder, but is considered separately

Epidemiology of Depression

1. Gender

2. Community

3. Socioeconomic status

4. Occupation

5. Life history

Epid of Depression — 1 - gender

More common in women (~2x) though the severity does not differ

• Reasons for disparity are complex

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Multiple factors possible

• Hormones (post partum)

• Low in males due to stigma

• High in females due to social pressures (family roles, unpaid labor, societal expectations)

Epid of Depression — 2 – Community

Burden of depression may be higher in Western, developed countries

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Many potential reasons for this disparity (not exclusive):

• more awareness, less stigma

• better diagnostic criteria, health care access

• beliefs about efficacy of emotional regulation

• valuation of happiness in western cultures

• description of disorder within the culture

Epid of Depression — 3 – SES

Low SES (i.e. low income) increases risk

In Eastern + Western communities, even with control for other variables

Main argument that low income leads to depression

• relationship between income + well-being complex

Low income may be associated with increased risk for many reasons (e.g. lack of insurance, health care…)

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Burden may be higher in developed countries with stronger economies, but risk is lower in people of higher SES

Epid of Depression — 4 – Occupation

If you don’t have a job, the risk is also higher (nearly x2)

Why does the risk vary by job?

Social interaction plays a role but it is complex

• Difficult (service) and rare (trucking/transport) interactions both a issue

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Stress level (high increases risk)

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Physical activity (low increases risk)

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Jobs offer varying degrees of validation (skills), feelings of meaning/status/acceptance, income and access to vital services

Epid of Depression — 5 – Life history

Risk for mental disorders increases with stress frequency

• life events

Theoretical models

Behavioral models proposed by Lewinsohn

• Low rate of reinforcement: try many things w/no success

• Learned helplessness is a related concept (Seligman)

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Interpersonal model proposed by Coyne

• Look to others for assurance > others respond negatively (hostility + rejection) > increasing need for reassurance

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Cognitive model popularized by Beck

• Cognitive distortions affect ability to acknowledge reality or interpret it; best describes serious depression

Biological Features of Depression

Hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex smaller

Substance Use Disorder (formerly addiction) — What is addiction?

Complex brain disease, there is compulsive engagement in behavior despite knowledge of harmful consequences

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The term “brain disease” suggests considering the brain is critical

• Matters for treatment, other competing perspectives exist (e.g. choice)

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”Behavior” can mean many things (e.g. substance use, gambling, sex or video games)

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“harmful” is itself a poorly defined term

Risk factors for SUD

• Stability of home environment

• Early use + peer groups

• Education

• Employment

• Genetics

• Gender

  • Usage/dependence rates higher in men for many drugs, overdose rates higher in women for some drugs

• Mental health status

  • Co-morbidities frequent

Comorbidities

Treating SUD

View of SUD as a “disease of the brain” or a “choice” has implications for treatment/quality of life

• beliefs vary by country

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Hybrid views favoured, extreme views not

• radical version of choice: concern over aggressive policies, stigma

• radical disease: concern treatments may be less effective

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Prognosis good with treatment; majority recover

• psychological and pharmacological treatments

Bipolar Disorder

Extreme swings in mood, including episodes of elevated mood (e.g. mania)

During periods of elevated mood, feels extremely energetic, happy and/or irritable

• reduced need for sleep

• reckless decision-making

Bipolar Disorder

• ~1% of the global population

• One of the most costly disorders worldwide (top 10)

• Risk of absenteeism, suicide and self-harm is high

• Related to several other traits (particularly creativity), over-represented in certain populations (creative professionals/artists)

Personality disorders

• Inflexible patterns of behavior — lead to distress

• Emerge in adolescence, around same time as personality traits

• Difficult to reliably diagnose; less researched than other conditions

• Category includes borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder and anti-social personality disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder — Symptoms

Poor social interaction

• Fails to respond to name, poor eye contact, resists cuddling, prefers being alone

• May not recognize/respond to social cues

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Repetitive behaviors/Difficulty switching behaviors

• Arranging objects, making sounds, hand flapping, head rolling and body rocking

• Special interests

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Slow language development

• Starts later than age of 2 (may remain non-verbal), repetition of words/phrases (echolalia), abnormal tone/rhythm

Autism - Spectrum

Heterogeneous group of disorders, defined by a set of symptoms varying in severity

The Spectrum

Exceptional cognitive abilities are rare (~10%)

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Strong genetic basis (twin studies: h2 = 0.6 to 0.7)

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~1% population, more common in boys (~3:1)

• could present differently by gender and be suppressed (masking)

• higher genetic load may be required in women (female protective brain theory; controversial)

• sex-specific pathways and hormones

Why are rates of ASD rising?

• Increased awareness and more sensitive diagnosis

• Inclusion of high-functioning cases

• Increased parental age

• Certain drugs (valproate), nutritional deficiencies, plastic exposure + more

What factor is NOT on this list?

Features of Schizophrenia

~0.5 – 1% of the population (similar worldwide)

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Onset and severity differs by sex

• Males ~18 years (earlier, worse outcomes)

• Females ~30 years (later, better outcomes)

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Associated with disrupted neurotransmission

• Positive symptoms similar to effects of Dopaminergic drugs (e.g. amphetamine, L-DOPA)

• symptoms reduced by drugs blocking DA (DA antagonists; typical antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol)

Major risk factors for SZ

• Prenatal + postnatal factors; “choices” (e.g. drugs) + “accidents” (e.g. illness)

• Strong genetic basis (h2 = 0.6 to 0.7)

  • from birth

Most people imagine Psychological therapies as…

…a single authority figure, usually with significant credentials (e.g. M.D.)

…a single patient with a single problem

…a highly structured interaction with many questions, usually about the person’s past difficult experiences

…emphasis on increased awareness

…a “relaxed setting”

Types of therapists

Professional — individual with specific, intensive training and certification from recognized institution

• Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists are a good example

• Broad expertise, awareness of the complex ethical/legal/personal issues

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Paraprofessionals — agency-specific qualifications specific to certain needs

• Pastoral counsellors

• Cannot formally diagnose or prescribe drugs

• Fill a key gap when other professionals are inaccessible

Types of therapists

Many different types of therapists, with many different strategies for different situations

The therapist is critical

• “Good therapists” are viewed as warm, respectful, caring, engaged, empathetic and authentic

• Ability to instill hope/positivity is another valued trait

• No clear relationship between experience + outcomes

• Trait matching with therapist (female-female, ethnicity-ethnicity) is often preferred, but benefits are unclear

Insight therapies

Focus on understanding how a person’s thoughts, beliefs, actions and prior history influence their current behavior

1 – Psychoanalytic therapies

Abnormal behaviors in mental health disorders may stem from early and/or traumatic experiences

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Emphasis on unconscious and analysis of:

• repressed thoughts/feelings

• wishes/fantasies

• recurring themes and patterns

• therapeutic interaction

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Belief that insight into unconscious is required for meaningful changes

• bring unconscious processing into conscious awareness

Procedures in psychoanalysis

Free association and Interpretation

• first thing that comes to mind

• may be meaningful, propose explanations

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Dream analysis

• may represent subconscious desires that contribute to current mental state

• wish fulfilment theory of dreaming

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Debate over role of insight in therapy efficacy

2 – Humanistic Therapies

• Related to perspectives of Rogers and Maslow

• Often called client-centered (older term) or person-centered (newer term)

• Emphasis on insight, positivity + self-actualization through choice (free will)

• Therapist should be authentic, unconditionally positive and empathic (three critically important traits)

• Less structured (client decides how time is spent)