Goldstein; Cognitive Psychology: Chapter 12

problem

occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

how it is represented in the person's mind

One of the central ideas of the Gestalt Approach is that success in solving a problem is influenced by:

restructuring

the process of changing the problem’s representation

insight

the sudden realization of a problem’s solution

fixation

people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps from arriving at a solution

functional fixedness

type of fixation that can work against solving a problem, focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object

candle problem

a problem, first described by Dunker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. this problem was used to study functional fixedness

two-string problem

the problem in which the subjects’ task was to tie together two strings that were hanging from the ceiling

mental set

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person’s experience or what has worked in the past

water jug problem

problem in which subjects were told that their task was to figure out on paper how to obtain a required volume of water, given three empty jars for measures

tower of hanoi problem

a problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. it has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis

initial state

conditions at the beginning of the problem

goal state

the solution of the problem

operators

actions that take the problem from one state to another

intermediate state

in problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states

problem space

the initial state, goal state, and all possible intermediate states for a particular problem

means-end analysis

a problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal state. this is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate state that are closer to the goal

subgoals

intermediate states that are close to the goal

mutilated checkerboard problem

a problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution

think-aloud protocal

test procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while solving a problem. they are instructed not to describe what they are doing, but to verbalize new thoughts as they occur

analogy

making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things

analogical problem solving

the use of analogies as an aid to solving probelems. typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem

analogical transfer

transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem

target problem

a problem to be solved. in analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story

source problem

a problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem

radiation problem

a problem posed by Dunker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. this problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving

surface features

specific elements of the problem

structural features

the underlying principle that governs the solution to a problem

analogical encoding

the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

analogical paradox

while it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, people routinely use analogies in real-world settings

in vivo problem-solving research

observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. this technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department