HSCI 210 Exam 2

circulatory system

transport blood/oxygen/nutrients to body & remove waste

• heart

• blood vessels

  • arteries

  • veins

  • capillaries

• blood

patent

clear opening

vasoconstriction

smaller, colder

vasodilation

bigger, warmer

arteries

carry blood away from heart, thickest wall (high pressure), smooth muscle, small opening/lumen (pushes more blood)

tunica adventitia/externa (artery)

most superficial layer, collagen

tunica media (artery)

middle layer, smooth muscle, responds to autonomic nervous system (dilates/constricts)

tunica intima (artery)

inner layer, endothelial cells, blood flows through (secrete/absorb), serous fluid to prevent blood clots

elastic arteries

largest (1-2.5cm), flexible, ex: aorta

muscular arteries

most muscular, require a lot of strength for motion, ex: digestive system

arterioles

branches connect artery to capillaries, regulate blood pressure (drops so capillaries dont burst), opens/closes nearby capillary beds using sphincters, endothelium surrounded by smooth muscle (thin tunica externa)

capillaries

help exchange substances between blood & tissues, meeting point of veins & arteries, thinnest wall (allow substances through), small vessels/opening (1 RBC at a time)

arterial capillary end

filtration, fluid exits capillary to body, pressure outside > pressure inside

venous capillary end

reabsorption, fluid enters capillary to vein, pressure outside < pressure inside

basement membrane (capillary)

superficial layer

tunica intima (capillary)

inner layer, simple squamous endothelial, secrete/absorb, exchange blood & lymph with surrounding tissues

continuous capillary

tight junctions (no openings), no seeping

fenestrated capillary

holes for nutrients to come in/waste to go out

sinusoid capillary

biggest openings, most permeable

veins

carries blood into heart, thin walls & less muscular/stretchy (low pressure), smooth muscle, larger opeing/lumen (carries more blood), has valves, no tunica media (no muscles)

venules

branches connect veins to capillaries, most permeable region, maintains blood flow, regulates exchange of fluid between vessels/interstitial tissues

tunica adventitia/externa (vein)

superficial layer, made of loose fibrous connective tissue

skeletal muscle pump

contract muscle to get blood pumping throughout body, ex: calf muscle

valves

prevent backflow of blood in veins, can cause blood to pool, in arms/legs/head/neck (not in torso)

increased vascular permeability

endothelial cells that contract when triggered by histamines during inflammatory response, cells have bigger gaps during contraction, allows plasma/proteins/WBC (exudate) to leak, causes swelling

aortic dissection

bubble in aorta pops & tears aortic wall, due to hypertension/atherosclerosis/aortic aneurysm/weak connective tissue/trauma/family history, treatment: surgical stent placement to close aorta

capillary rupture

capillary walls break & blood cells leak, resolves independently

edema (swelling)

interstitial tissue doesnt drain back into capillary venules, lets more fluid out than in, causes pitting, due to injury/infection/heart failure/liver or kidney disease, treatment: elevation/garments/medication/activity (move skeletal muscle to minimize blood clots)

pulmonary edema

swelling of lungs in alveoli (air sacs) of lungs

varicose veins

valves dont close & blood flows backwards, due to weak valves/increased pressure/family history, treatment: surgical removal to close veins

respiratory system

move air into body & remove waste products, oxygen used for cells & carbon dioxide released

nasal cavity

air enters body & gets warmed up/moisturized through nasal conchae, vascular ciliated columnar epithelium & cilliated psudostratified columnar epithelium

nasal conchae (turbinates)

filters dirt/bacteria, can adjust size to control airflow, helps with sense of smell

sinuses

warm & humidify air, produce mucous to trap unwanted particles from getting to lungs, minimizes weight of head

nasal mucosa

has nerve cells to transfer chemical signals into electrical impulses through olfactory bulb

oral mucosa

moist lining of mouth for protection/sensation/oral function, stratified squamous epithelium

tonsils & adenoids

lymphoid tissue used as first line of defense for immune system

larynx

voice box, leads to trachea and lungs, controlled by muscles

epiglottis

cartilage flap to close larynx, prevent food from getting into trachea

vocal cords

superior part of trachea, muscles open & close

thyroid cartilage

large protrusion in throat, “adams apple”

pharynx

leads to esophagus, posterior to trachea

trachea

long tube connecting mouth to nasal cavity, hyaline cartilage rings to keep open (not posterior), esophagus posterior, ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

bronchi

branches coming off from trachea, deep to manubrium, each enter lungs, ciliated pseudostratitifed columnar epithelium

lobar bronchi

secondary bronchi

bronchioles

smaller tubes coming off bronchi

alveoli

sacs in terminal bronchiole ends where gas exchange takes place, covered with capillaries, simple squamous epithelium (thin for gas exchange)

type I pneumocytes

thin flat cells that allow gas exchange, cannot replicate themselves

type II pneumocytes

progenitor cells (stem cells) that can turn into type I cells, secrete surfactant to prevent alveolus from collapsing/inner walls from sticking together

surfactant

hydrophilic lipoprotein that prevents alveoli from collapsing & inner walls from sticking together, keeps alveoli open, premature babies dont produce surfactant yet

lungs

located in thoracic cavity, each lung sits in pleural cavity

right lung

3 lobes (superior/middle/inferior), separated by horizontal & oblique fissures

left lung

2 lobes (superior/inferior), separated by oblique fissure

cardiac notch

where apex of heart lays on left lung

lung layers (pleura)

• thoracic wall

• parietal pleura (lines pleura)

• pleural cavity (filled with intrapleural fluid, helps with smooth contraction of lung)

• visceral pleura (lines lungs)

inspiration

low pressure in lungs & air comes inside lungs, diaphragm pulls down, pleural cavity increases size

principal muscles for inspiration

diaphragm & external intercostals

diaphragm

sheet of skeletal muscle, moves down during contraction (inhalation) & up during relaxation (exhalation), aids in digestion

external intercostals

expands ribcage, fibers superior to inferior

accessory muscles for inspiration

sternocleidomastoid/scalenes group/pectoralis minor, last option to elevate ribs

expiration

high pressure in lungs released outside, diaphragm relaxed/releases up, pleural cavity decreases in size

quiet breathing for expiration

no muscle contraction, passive/elastic recoil of diaphragm & external intercostals

active breathing muscles for expiration

internal intercostals/abdominals/quadratus lumborum, pulls ribs down

neural breathing controls

• higher centers of brain

• chemoreceptors in carotid/aortic body

• stretch receptors in lungs

• proprioceptors in joints/muscles

• receptors for touch/temperature/pain stimuli

val salva maneuver

increase internal pressure by holding air in lungs, affects those with heart issues (pass out), need to exhale to prevent injuries

• decreases cardiac output (volume of blood pumped out of heart per minute)

• decreases venous return

• decreases blood pressure

• increases heart rate

sinusitis

inflammation/swelling of lining of sinuses reduces sinus drainage, sinus fills with fluid, due to allergic reactions/virus/bacteria

pulmonary disorders

air/fluid gets into pleural cavity, due to trauma/medial procedure/lung diseases

pneumothorax

lung tissue collapses due to air/hole in tissue or excessive fluid in tissue, treatment: drain chest with tube

covid-19

mutated virus connects to angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE-2) (protein receptor on surface of heart/kidneys/lungs) to enter cell, causes excessive T-cell presence & inflammation, damages alveolar epithelium & capillary endothelium, difficulty breathing & death

pneumonia

bacteria/virus attacks lung tissue, inflamed bronchioles & increased mucus production in alveoli

acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

fluid build up in alveoli, caused by trauma/blood transfusions/surgery, treatment: conservative fluid management/prone ventilation/lung protective ventilation

digestive system

processes food & liquids

digestive tract

structures where food passes through

mouth

initial stage of digestion, teeth mechanically breakdown food, salivary glands releases saliva to chemically breakdown & moisten food

labial frenulum

connects gums to lips

uvula

tissue hanging from soft palate, prevents food from going to nasal cavity

salivary glands

inside mouth, makes saliva to chemically breakdown starch into sugars & fight against bacteria/virus, helps taste

parotid gland

in front of ear

submandibular gland

under mouth

sublingual gland

under tongue

saliva

H2O + mucus + enzymes + electrolytes, help chemical breakdown of food

lingual lipase

breaks down triglycerides in mouth

salivary amylase

breaks down starch

tongue

taste/chew/swallow food, speech, cleanliness, keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

keratin

fibrous protein, tough

extrinsic tongue muscles

makes larger tongue movements, skeletal muscle

palatoglossus

tongue muscle that originates at palate

styloglossus

tongue muscle that originates at styloid process

genioglossus

tongue muscle that originates at chin

hyoglossus

tongue muscle that originates at hyoid bone

intrinsic tongue muscles

changes tongue shape, skeletal muscle

taste buds

receptor cells on tongue that take chemical signals to brain to interpret taste

afferent nerve fibers (sensory)

send signals to brain

papillae

small rounded protuberence on tongue

crown

part of tooth you can see

root

part of tooth in gums (gingiva)

dental alveolus (alveoli)

socket for tooth

tooth layers (superficial to deep)

• enamel

• dentin

• pulp

• cementum

• root canal

• periodontal ligament

maxillary teeth

upper teeth on maxillary bone

mandibular teeth

lower teeth on mandibular bone