Biochem

Reducing Sugars

Sugars that contain a free aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone (-C=O) group and can reduce other substances.

Benedict’s reagent

A chemical reagent used to test for the presence of reducing sugars; it turns red/orange in positive tests.

D and L Isomers

Isomers based on the orientation of the hydroxyl (-OH) group at the furthest chiral carbon from the functional group.

Alpha Form (Anomer)

A cyclic form of a sugar where the -OH group on the anomeric carbon is positioned down.

Beta Form (Anomer)

A cyclic form of a sugar where the -OH group on the anomeric carbon is positioned up.

Disaccharide

A carbohydrate formed from two monosaccharides.

Maltose

A disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules linked by an α-1,4 bond.

Lactose

A disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose linked by a β-1,4 bond.

Sucrose

A disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked by an α-1,2 bond.

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units.

Starch

A polysaccharide that serves as an energy storage form in plants, consisting of amylose and amylopectin.

Glycogen

A highly branched polysaccharide that serves as energy storage in animals.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide that serves as structural support in plant cell walls, comprised of β-1,4 bonds.

Saturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids with no double bonds, typically solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids with one or more double bonds, typically liquid at room temperature.

Phospholipids

Amphipathic molecules that form bilayers in cell membranes, consisting of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.

Prostaglandins

Compounds derived from arachidonic acid that function in inflammation, pain, and fever.

Steroids

Lipids characterized by a common structure of four fused rings; examples include cholesterol and hormones.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein)

A type of lipoprotein that transports cholesterol to the liver, often referred to as 'good cholesterol'.

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)

A type of lipoprotein that delivers cholesterol to tissues, often referred to as 'bad cholesterol'.

Primary Structure (Protein)

The sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds in a protein.

Secondary Structure (Protein)

The localized folding of a polypeptide chain into structures such as alpha helices and beta sheets.

Tertiary Structure (Protein)

The three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide, influenced by interactions between R-groups.

Quaternary Structure (Protein)

The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein.

Denaturation

The process by which proteins lose their functional shape due to heat, pH, or chemicals.

Enzymes

Proteins that act as catalysts to speed up biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Active Site

The region on an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

Lock-and-Key Model

A model explaining how a substrate fits perfectly into an enzyme's active site.

Induced Fit Model

A model explaining how an enzyme changes shape to better fit a substrate during a reaction.

Competitive Inhibitors

Substances that compete with the substrate for binding to the active site of an enzyme.

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

Substances that bind to an enzyme at a location other than the active site, altering enzyme function.

DNA Structure

A double helix comprising deoxyribose sugar, with base pairs of A-T and G-C.

RNA Structure

A single-stranded molecule with ribose sugar, containing base pairs of A-U and G-C.

Replication

The process of copying DNA to produce two identical DNA molecules.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process of synthesizing proteins from RNA at ribosomes.

Point Mutation

A mutation that involves a change in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence.

Frameshift Mutation

A mutation caused by the insertion or deletion of nucleotides, altering the reading frame.

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

Gluconeogenesis

The metabolic process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors.

Citric Acid Cycle

A key metabolic pathway that generates electron carriers while oxidizing acetyl CoA.

Electron Transport Chain

A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to oxygen, producing ATP and water.

Beta-Oxidation

The process of breaking down fatty acids to generate acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2.

Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation

An equation used to calculate the pH of buffer solutions based on the concentration of acids and their conjugate bases.

Anabolic Processes

Metabolic pathways that build larger molecules from smaller ones, requiring energy.

Catabolic Processes

Metabolic pathways that break down larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.

Aerobic Processes

Metabolic pathways that require oxygen.

Anaerobic Processes

Metabolic pathways that occur without oxygen.