Memory

Schema Theory

According to schema theory, our knowledge is organised in cognitive frameworks known as schemas. They help with everyday thinking, such as information processing and recall.

Assimilation: new information is conntected existing schemas.

Accomodation: new information doesnt fit nicely into an existing schema so a new schema is created to accomodate the new information.

3 important claims of schema theory:

our knowledge of the world is organised in clusters called schemas → their function is to help us organise our existing knowledge and memories

1. schemas exist

2. schemas help organise our existing knowledge and memories

3. schemas help comprehend new information

Schemas and memory (Bransford and Johnson)

Aim: to see how prior knowledge (schemas) affects comprehension and memory

Method: Participants listened to a vague passage and were split into 3 groups:

• Title before reading ‘doing laundry’

• Title after reading

• No title

Then they ranked their comprehension of the passage and recall as many details as possible

Results: Title before group had the best understanding and recall

Conclusion: Schemas improve comprehension and memory by helping us link new informaton to our existing knowledge of a subject, which links to the claim from schema theory

Multi-store model stores

The MSM posits that there are three memory stores:

sensory story: information we sense is briefly stored

short-term store: the small amount of information that can be held and manipulated in the mind bc we pay attention to it, and it can be used in the execution of cognitive tasks (also known as working memory)

long-term store: this store contains all our long-term memories.

Multistore model control processes

Attention: required for sensory memory to become short-term memory. if u arent paying attention to things around u, they wont transfer to ur short-term memory

rehearsal: transfers information from short-term store to long-term store

search and retrieval: we can search for and retrieve information from our long-term store to our short-term store

What is the serial position effect/primacy and recency effect?

cognitive phenomnenom whereby people tend to remember the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list. People tend to remember the primacy because they have longer to rehearse the information they may have paid more attention to, so higher probability of being transferred to LTS. Recency because it is still in their STS. Information in the middle may be lost because of the limited capacity of the STS.

e.g. remembering the first/last items on a shopping list

Working Memory Model

Cognitive theory that proposes working memory is a multi-component processor that temporarily holds and manipulates information
Central executive: Controls the flow of information from long-term to short-term memory by controlling what you focus on and activating stored knowledge

Visuospatial sketchpad: holds and manipulates visual (shape, colour) and spatial (where and how arranged) information
Phonological loop: holds auditory information
Episodic buffer: responsible for non-visual and non-auditory information and temporarily holds information from long-term memory until it’s needed.

Playing computer games uses your working memory. Finding things and people uses your visuospatial sketchpad. Remembering instructions you read or hear from a character or player uses your phonological loop. Memory of strategy waits in your episodic buffer until you need it. Finally, the central executive controls which of these slave systems is being used at any one time. This might be why psychologists have found that some video games can improve working memory.

CS: The famous case of Henry Molaison

In 1953, Henry Molaison had his hippocampus removed, this had resulted with him having extreme amnesia: the inability to form new memories. If he was given a number to remember, he could keep it in his working memory, but as soon as he was distracted, he’d forget it. His short-term memory seemed to be fine, provided that he was rehearsing the information. His long-term memory stayed the same. This suggests that the hippocampus transfers short-term memory to long-term memory.

Memory consolidation

the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory

How does Cortisol affect memory

Cortisol is a hormone released by our adrenal glands in response to stress. Stress and excitement-induced releases of cortisol improves our memory consolidation. E.g. If our ancient ancestors was in the woods and saw a bear, their amygdala would spark a rush of stress hormones and they’d run to safety (through adrenaline). However, the cortisol would help them to remember where they saw the bear so they know where to be extra careful around

what are ACE’s (adverse childhood experiences)

specific types of traumatic experiences that can happen during childhood: abuse, neglect, family dysfunction

CS: ACE’s and memory

Aim: see if ACE’s were associated with memory problems

Method: Longitudinal study where 12,000 participants self-reported their ACE’s from childhood. Short-term memory recall was measured using a recall test, participants heard a list of 15 words and then had to write as many as they could remember. To measure long-term memory, they were asked to recall the same words 20 minutes later. Working memory was measured using an n-back test.
Results: participants with ACE’s had poorer performance on all memory types

Abuse and the hippocampus

Chronic release of cortisol can reduce the size of the hippocampus - especially the dorsal hippocampus. Correlational studies have shown that individuals who have experienced a lot of childhood abuse tend to have a smaller hippocampi. Smaller hippocampi = a person would find it harder to learn and remember new information.

Neglect and the hippocampus

if a child is physically/emotionally neglected, their brain has less stimulation. They wont be learning new things and their neurones wont grow and make new connections → over many years this results in significantly smaller hippocampal volumes → negatively affect their ability to learn and remember new information

CS: Romanian orphans and brain development

Aim: is early-life neglect correlated with changes in brain development as an adult

Method: Participants were all in their mid-20s → two groups. One group had spent between 3-41 months in an orphanage as children. Second group had been adopted in the UK as children. All participants had an MRI scan.
Results: Orphans had brains that were 8.6% smaller than UK adoptees. There was a strong negative correlation between amount of time spent in orphanage and total volume of their brains.
Conclusion: neglect as a child is related to long-lasting changes in brain development

Flashbulb Memories

Memories of the circumstances one is in when they receive highly surprising or emotionally significant news
FBM theory posits that surprise and emotion cause stronger memories because they increase rehearsal. People will overtly rehearse the information by talking about it with other people, but they will also covertly rehearse the information by rehearsing it internally

Cultures influence on FBM formation - anecdotal

Whether one is more prone to forming FMS is influenced a lot by culture. After a major global event such as a natural disaster, individualistic culture are more likely to overtly rehearse the event and collectivistic cultures are more likely to avoid discussing emotional reactions/rehearsing. This is because individualistic cultures value the expression of emotion as it is highly personal, whereas collectivistic cultures would think and talk less to help keep control of their emotion and maintain social harmony. Because of this, individualistic cultures are more prone to forming more FBMs because they rehearse more.

Cognitive Load

Cognitive Load is the amount of cognitive effort used to perform a task. Otherwise known as mental load. Our learning is hindered when the working memory’s limited capacity is overloaded by too much information/high cognitive load.
High cognitive load → all the different resources of the WM are competing for the limited capacity

Low cognitive load → All the working memory resources are focused on one task

real-world example: studying with or without distractions

Cognitive Load Theory three types of cognitive load:

Intrinsic: how much working memory is used by the learning task itself

Extrinsic: how much working memory is used by a task other than the learning task

Germane: how much cognitive effort is required to activate our schema and create new schemas whilst doing the learning task

Real-world example: Studying flashcards on my laptop → lots of tabs would trigger higher extrinsic load and lower intrinsic load. Studying flashcards has low germane load bc ur not making connections to existing schemas, mindmaps however show the relation between different terms and would increase germane load bc it develops our existing schemas and helps to make new ones

CS: Super Mario Brothers and the hippocampus

Aim: to see if playing 3D Super Mario Brothers would improve memory and affect its hippocampus
Method: Older adults were randomly divided into 3 groups. One group had computerised piano lessons, the control group did nothing, and the third group played 3D super mario bros. The researchers did MRI scans and memory tests before and then 6 months later. They found only the Super Mario group had increased grey matter volume in their hippocampi, the control group had a decrease. The super mario bros group also showed improvements in memory tests.

Conclusion: 3D video games use working memory and improve memory capacity