(4) Memory strategies and Metacognition

What is the total time hypothesis?

The more time spent practicing, the better the memory—if the time is used effectively.

What is retrieval practice?

Actively recalling information strengthens memory more than restudying

What is the testing effect?

Retrieval/testing yourself enhances learning and strengthens memory traces.

Why does retrieval strengthen memory?

Each act of recall reconstructs and strengthens the memory trace.

What is the distributed-practice effect?

Studying over spaced intervals is superior to cramming.

Why does spacing improve memory?

Why it works: 

• Requires more effortful retrieval. 

• Reduces illusions of competence. 

• Increases encoding variability 

Why does imagery improve memory?

• It provides dual coding (verbal + visual). 

• Images are often more distinctive than words. 

What is the keyword method for memory strategies?

A mnemonic for learning foreign vocabulary by:

1. Finding a similar-sounding English keyword

2. Creating a vivid interactive image linking keyword and meaning

Ex. The spanish word “chompipe”

• You imagine a turkey wearing a plumber’s outfit using a giant wrench to fix a PIPE while taking a huge CHOMP out of a corn cob.

This creates a phonological and semantic link

What is the method of loci?

Associating items with familiar physical locations and mentally “walking through” them during recall.

What is the peg-word method?

A technique for memorizing ordered lists by linking items to pre-memorized “peg” words (e.g., 1–bun, 2–shoe).

What is chunking?

Grouping items into meaningful units (e.g., 1-9-4-5 → 1945).

What did Bower et al. (1969) show about hierarchy and how is it used in organization?

Hierarchy is a system where things are arranged in ranked order

Ex. Hierarchy of Mineral

Hierarchy 1: minerals

Hierarchy 2: Metals/stones

Hierarchy 3: Rare/common/masonry

Hierarchy 4: platinum, silver, copper

Bower et al. gave one group words organized in hierarchy and the other group organized in random order

Words organized from general → specific were recalled much better than random lists.

What is the first letter strategy?

Creating acronyms (e.g., ROY G. BIV) to serve as retrieval cues.

Creates a retrieval cue based on initial letters. 

What is the narrative strategy for memory?

Creating a story linking words improves recall.

Bower & Clark, 1969 study:

• One group was instructed to create a narrative story linking the words together as they learned them 

• The other group was instructed to use their own method 

• Results: 

  • The narrative group performed a lot better 

  • Creating a story linking words improves recall. 

  • Narrative provides relational structure and meaning. 

What is prospective memory?

Remembering to do things in the future.

What is retrospective memory?

the ability to recall past events, people, words, and experiences previously encountered

When is absentminded behavior and when does it occur?

A breakdown at the interface of attention and memory 

• It is a retrieval problem caused by distraction 

• Ex.  

  • Walking into a room and standing there thinking, "What did I come in here for?" 

  • Putting the milk in the cupboard and the cereal in the fridge because you were thinking about a conversation. 

How can prospective memory be improved?

Using external memory aids:

• Calendars

• Phone reminders

• Sticky notes

• Alarms

Why do external aids help?

They reduce reliance on internal monitoring.

What is the space helmet study show?

• Children were asked to remember items. 

• Older children rehearsed (repeated items). 

• Younger children often did not rehearse unless prompted. 

• Result: 

  • Strategy use develops with age 

What did Moely et al. find about organizational strategies in chidlren

• Researchers gave children a set of items to remember 

• Researchers tested what the children did during the study phase not if they remembered the information 

• Results: 

  • Older children grouped items by category. 

  • Younger children did not spontaneously organize. 

What is metacognition and Metamemory

Metacognition: Knowledge, awareness, and control of cognitive processes.

Metamemory: Knowledge, awareness, and control of memory processes.

How accurate are people at estimating overall performance?

• People often overestimate performance 

• Research by David Dunning et al. (2003): 

  • Lower-performing individuals tend to overestimate their competence. 

  • Known as the Dunning–Kruger effect. 

    • Low- performing people: heavily over estimate their performance and do very bad

    • High-scoring people: underestimate their performance and end up doing better

Explain prediction of item-by-item performance regarding metamemory

Involves judging your knowledge of specific facts vs judging your general ability in a domain

• Item-by-item test: 

  • A person is shown a specific item (e.g. a word pair: Dog-Cloud) and asked, "How confident are you that you will remember this on a test later?" 

• Results: 

  • People are generally fairly accurate. 

  • Calibration is better for specific items than overall judgments. 

How accurate are students about effectiveness of memory strategies?

• People’s knowledge about memory strategies is often poor. 

• Students: 

  • Over-rely on rereading. 

  • Underuse spacing and retrieval practice. 

  • Misjudge which strategies are effective. 

How do students allocate study time?

• Students spend more time on difficult items. 

• But not enough extra time. 

• Study time allocation is imperfect 

What do children understand about metamemory?

Children have: 

• Some knowledge of how memory works 

  • Larger set size = harder to remember

  • Fatigue affects memory 

  • Familiarity helps remember

What do children lack about metamemory?

• Less knowledge about effort required. 

  • They might think remembering is just a passive process but instead somethings take effort to focus 

• Poor understanding of strategy effectiveness. 

  • Children won't understand why some strategies work and why some don't 

How does metamemory function in older adults?

• Similar basic knowledge of how memory works. 

• Similar accuracy in item-by-item predictions. 

• More likely to overestimate overall performance in some tasks. 

• Metacognitive monitoring remains relatively preserved compared to some memory declines 

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

• TOT = Sensation we have when we are confident we know a word for which we are searching, but cannot recall it 

  • Strong sense that you know the word. 

  • Cannot retrieve it at the moment. 

• Ex. 

  • “Employment acquired on the basis of family membership” → nepotism 

What information can people often report during TOT?

• First letter

• Number of syllables

• Grammatical gender (in gendered languages)

What is metacomprehension?

Knowledge, awareness, and control of reading comprehension.

What do good readers do?

• Make connections

• Use imagery

• Summarize

• Reread when confused

What characterizes poor readers?

• Less strategic. 

• Less likely to regulate comprehension. 

• More passive.