AP Psychology Unit 2 Vocabulary

apparent motion

the perception of movement in a stationary object, often created when a series of images or lights are shown in rapid succession

attention

focusing awareness on a particular stimulus or group of stimuli

autokinetic effect

a visual phenomenon where a stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence, to provide depth perception

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

change blindness

a phenomenon where a person does not notice a change in a visual stimulus when it is introduced after a brief interruption or distraction

closure

the perceptual tendency to fill in gaps to perceive a complete, whole object

cocktail party effect

the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, but still being able to detect important information like one's name from the unattended voices

color constancy

the ability to perceive consistent color in objects, even when lighting changes alter the wavelengths reflected by the objects

convergence

a binocular depth cue where the brain calculates the degree of inward angle of the eyes when focusing on a nearby object, which helps in perceiving depth

depth perception

the ability to judge the distance of objects and perceive the world in three dimensions

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of its parts

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups based on principles such as proximity and similarity

inattentional blindness

a failure to notice a visible but unexpected stimulus when attention is directed elsewhere

interposition

a monocular cue for depth perception where one object partially covering another is perceived as closer

linear perspective

a monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

monocular cues

depth cues available to each eye separately, such as relative size and texture gradient

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to an altered perceptual environment

perceptual constancies

the tendency to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement when adjacent lights blink rapidly

proximity

the tendency to group nearby objects

relative clarity

a monocular cue where hazy objects are perceived as farther away

relative size

a monocular cue where smaller-appearing objects are perceived as farther away

retinal disparity

a binocular cue where greater difference between images = closer object

schemas

concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information

selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

similarity

the tendency to group similar objects

stroboscopic movement

a rapid series of images perceived as motion

texture gradient

a monocular cue where texture becomes finer with distance

visual cliff

a lab device used to test depth perception in infants

accommodation

adapting schemas to incorporate new information

algorithm

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

assimilation

interpreting new experiences using existing schemas

availability heuristic

judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

belief perseverance

maintaining beliefs even after evidence disproves them

cognition

mental activities involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

confirmation bias

seeking information that supports existing beliefs

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects or ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing options to find a single solution

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

generating many possible solutions

executive functions

cognitive processes for goal-directed behavior

fixation

inability to see a problem in a new way

framing

the way information is presented

functional fixedness

seeing objects only in their usual functions

gambler’s fallacy

belief that chance events balance out in short term

heuristic

a mental shortcut that simplifies decision-making

insight

a sudden realization of a solution

intuition

quick, automatic thinking without conscious reasoning

mental set

tendency to approach problems in a familiar way

metacognition

thinking about one’s own thinking

nudge

a subtle influence on decision-making

overconfidence

overestimating accuracy of beliefs

priming

unconscious activation of associations

prototype

best example of a category

representativeness heuristic

judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype

schema

a framework for organizing information

sunk-cost fallacy

continuing something due to prior investment

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information

central executive

directs attention in working memory

deep processing

encoding based on meaning

echoic memory

short auditory sensory memory

effortful processing

encoding requiring attention

encoding

getting information into memory

episodic memory

memory of personal events

explicit memory

conscious memory of facts and events

iconic memory

brief visual sensory memory

implicit memory

unconscious retention like skills

long-term memory

long-lasting memory storage

long-term potentiation

strengthening of neural connections

memory

persistence of learning over time

multi-store model

model with sensory, short-term, long-term memory

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

phonemic processing

encoding based on sound

phonological loop

handles verbal information in working memory

procedural memory

memory for skills

prospective memory

remembering to do something in future

retrieval

getting information from memory

semantic memory

general knowledge memory

semantic processing

encoding meaning

sensory memory

brief sensory storage

shallow processing

encoding based on appearance

storing

retaining information over time

structural processing

encoding based on structure

visuospatial sketchpad

handles visual/spatial info

working memory

active processing of information

categories

groupings based on shared traits

chunking

grouping information into units

distributed practice

spaced learning over time

encode

converting information for memory

hierarchies

organizing info into levels

massed practice

cramming in one session

method of loci

memory technique using locations

mnemonic devices

memory aids using associations

primacy effect

better recall of early items

recency effect

better recall of last items

spacing effect

better memory with spaced study