neurological disorders 1
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71 Terms
What is dementia?
A syndrome involving progressive decline in cognitive function that interferes with daily life.
Approximately how many people in the UK are living with dementia?
About 900,000.
Approximately how many people worldwide are living with dementia?
About 55 million.
What proportion of people over 65 in the UK have dementia?
Approximately 1 in 11.
What is a major risk factor for dementia?
Increasing age.
What is mild cognitive impairment (MCI)?
Cognitive decline greater than expected for age that does not significantly impair daily functioning.
What MMSE score range indicates mild cognitive impairment?
21–24.
What MMSE score range is considered normal?
25–30.
What MMSE score range indicates moderate cognitive impairment?
10–20.
What MMSE score range indicates severe cognitive impairment?
0–9.
What does MMSE stand for?
Mini Mental State Examination.
What is Alzheimer's disease?
A progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia.
What are the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
Memory impairment, cognitive decline, and functional deterioration.
Which type of memory is often affected earliest in Alzheimer's disease?
Episodic memory.
Which brain structure is heavily affected early in Alzheimer's disease?
The hippocampus.
Why does hippocampal degeneration cause memory problems?
The hippocampus is critical for memory formation and consolidation.
What are the two hallmark pathological features of Alzheimer's disease?
Amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
What protein forms amyloid plaques?
Amyloid-beta.
What protein forms neurofibrillary tangles?
Tau.
Where are amyloid plaques located?
Extracellularly.
Where are neurofibrillary tangles located?
Inside neurons.
What is APP?
Amyloid precursor protein.
What pathological peptide is generated from abnormal APP processing?
Amyloid-beta.
What is the amyloid cascade hypothesis?
The theory that amyloid-beta accumulation initiates Alzheimer's pathology.
What effect does amyloid-beta accumulation have on neurons?
Synaptic dysfunction and neuronal death.
What is tau?
A microtubule-associated protein.
What happens to tau in Alzheimer's disease?
It becomes abnormally phosphorylated and forms tangles.
What effect do neurofibrillary tangles have on neurons?
They disrupt cellular function and contribute to neuronal death.
Which neurotransmitter system is particularly affected in Alzheimer's disease?
The cholinergic system.
Which neurotransmitter is reduced in Alzheimer's disease?
Acetylcholine.
Why is acetylcholine important for cognition?
It contributes to learning, memory, and attention.
What class of drugs is commonly used to treat Alzheimer's disease?
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.
How do acetylcholinesterase inhibitors work?
They increase acetylcholine availability by reducing its breakdown.
Give an example of an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used in Alzheimer's disease.
Donepezil.
Do acetylcholinesterase inhibitors cure Alzheimer's disease?
No, they only provide symptomatic benefit.
What is memantine?
An NMDA receptor antagonist used in Alzheimer's disease.
How does memantine work?
It reduces pathological glutamatergic excitotoxicity.
What is excitotoxicity?
Neuronal damage caused by excessive glutamate signalling.
What type of disorder is major depressive disorder (MDD)?
A mood disorder characterised by persistent low mood and loss of interest.
What is anhedonia?
Loss of pleasure or interest in normally rewarding activities.
What are common symptoms of major depressive disorder?
Low mood, anhedonia, sleep disturbances, appetite changes, fatigue, and impaired concentration.
What neurotransmitter hypothesis was historically proposed for depression?
The monoamine hypothesis.
What does the monoamine hypothesis propose?
That depression involves reduced monoamine neurotransmission.
Which monoamines are most strongly implicated in depression?
Serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine.
What is serotonin also known as?
5-HT.
Which neurotransmitter is most strongly associated with mood regulation?
Serotonin.
What are SSRIs?
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
How do SSRIs work?
They block serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels in the synaptic cleft.
Give an example of an SSRI.
Fluoxetine.
Why is there a delay between SSRI administration and clinical improvement?
Adaptive neural changes take time to occur.
What is treatment-resistant depression?
Depression that does not respond adequately to standard treatments.
What NMDA receptor antagonist can rapidly improve depression symptoms?
Ketamine.
Why was ketamine considered important in depression research?
It demonstrated rapid antidepressant effects.
Which neurotransmitter receptor is blocked by ketamine?
The NMDA receptor.
What neurotransmitter system is targeted by ketamine?
The glutamatergic system.
What is the relationship between depression and neuroplasticity?
Reduced neuroplasticity may contribute to depressive symptoms.
What brain region is commonly implicated in depression?
The prefrontal cortex.
What limbic structure is involved in emotional processing and depression?
The amygdala.
What is the role of the amygdala in emotional disorders?
Processing emotional and threat-related information.
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in depression?
It contributes to cognitive control and emotional regulation.
What neurotransmitter system is targeted by acetylcholinesterase inhibitors?
The cholinergic system.
What neurotransmitter system is targeted by SSRIs?
The serotonergic system.
What neurotransmitter system is targeted by ketamine?
The glutamatergic system.
Which Alzheimer's pathology is extracellular?
Amyloid-beta plaques.
Which Alzheimer's pathology is intracellular?
Neurofibrillary tangles.
Which neurotransmitter is depleted in Alzheimer's disease?
Acetylcholine.
Which neurotransmitter is most strongly targeted by SSRIs?
Serotonin.
Which receptor is targeted by memantine?
NMDA receptors.
Which receptor is targeted by ketamine?
NMDA receptors.
Which disease is characterised by amyloid plaques and tau tangles?
Alzheimer's disease.
Which disorder is characterised by persistent low mood and anhedonia?
Major depressive disorder.