national identity and sovereignty ENQ2

How did Britain become the main imp0erial power in the 19th century

• wars with Netherlands and France left England the dominant colonial power in the North America and India

• It defeated France in the revolutionary Napoleonic wars

Describe ways in which national identity was growing in Britain in the 19th century

• motivates imperial expansion of a nation by creating a sense of pride, superiority and destiny among citizens

• As well as a desire to spread their values and civilisation to other parts of the of the world

How have people felt disunity within nations

There is a growing sense of isolation and etachemtn from people who feel left behind by the pace of globalisation

People face uncertainty, a loss of control and huge lost trust in the system

Their opinion is that globalisation has lead to low wages and insecure employment

• others who are antiglobalisation have pointed to a world increasingly run by stateless and faceless TNCs

What is nationalism

Is a political ideology that emphasises the loyalty and devotion by a common culture, language, history or territor

What doe the development of empires expand

• the political, economic, military and cultural influence of a state or a civilisation over other regions or people

How was colonialism in the 19th century seen as improving and civilising the wider world

• abolition of the slave trade in 1807 was an aspect of a British mission

• Christianity spread aorund the world, open speech, sense of pride

Conflict in the 19th century

The empires built though 19th century (1800-1900)

• nationalism become a source of conflict

• In 1804 napoleon made himself the emperor of France and began extending French territory across Europe

• His military victors booested French patriotism but angered Russia

• Countries competing over expansion was cause of WW1, Germany began extensive goals to expand eastern Germany

Events which lead to independence - Vietnam

• due to the French Indochina, the society was divided inot those with land and those without, leaving the working classes with little food, health care and education

• As cash crop exports increasingly replace domestic substance crops and replaced domestic substinence crops - they became poorer and unfriendly

• After 1945 Vietnamese nationalists increasingly challenged the French rule, defeating them in 1945 and nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh reclaimed Vietnam from France.

• However other Asian states also gained independence, to reach an agreeent Vietnam was dived inot two

• A long and devastating war unified Vietnam as a while 1 - 4 million Vietnamese were killed

Events which lead to independence Sudan

The major European nation agreed Africas individual borders - Sudan was divided inot northern and southern territories

• this forced Sudan people against each other rather than against the colonial ruler creating hundreds of Cheifdoms

• By 2017 after a 4 year long civil war a unity state lies in the North

Push factors associated with decolonisation

Conflicts, poor governance and economic struggles associated with decolonisation created strong push factors fro immigration form newly independent states to former imperial powers

Strong pull factors also resulted form the economic boom of the 1960s

Cultural heterogenicity

• Refers to differences in cultural identify related to class, ethnicity language, traditions, religion, sense of place and many other cultural aspects

Colonial legacies

• many of the countries in Africa today tail speak Englisha dn French

• For example Congo still speaks English

• And South Africa speak a mixture of English and Afrikaans

Globalisation and tax havens

• Globalisation has encouraged the girths of movement of capital between countries and has increased FDI

• It has also encouraged the growth of started that have a low tax regime which provide havens for the profit of RNCs and homes for wealthy expatriates

What is a tax haven

A juristriciton that uses the promise of secrecy for over seas investors to competes to financial flows

Singapore VS iceland case study

• They are both island states

  • Singapore has a population of 5.5 million in a 720km2 area

  • Iceland has a much larger area of 103,000km2 but populaiton of 330,000

  • Singapore is culturally and ethnically diverse: the 2020 census recorded the 48% of the populaton were foreign born, linguistic differences show that 50% of the populaiton speak mandarin and 32% speak English and 12% Malay

  • Iceland is considered a nation state because its national culture and language are indigenous andn unique. The inhabitants ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups but there are few cross border minorities, they all pass on theri first name down generations and any new names are decided by the Icelandic naming comitee

Iraq

The region between the Tigris and Euphrates has been called the cradle if civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws ans live in cities under organised government.

• The area has been home to successive civilisations since the sixth millennium BC.

• Used to be part of many empires such as the Ottoman

• Iraqs modern borders were divide by the treaty of sevres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the UK as te British Mandate of Mesopotamia.  A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932

• Since independence in 1932 Iraq has suffered ongoing conflict between the Sunni, Shiite and Kurdish factions. This has led to an ongoing debate about the splitting of Iraq inot three autonomous regions

• There have been two modern wars involving the superpower in 1990 and 2003, and the different ethinic groups continue to fight within the country and beyond

Rwanda fact file

• Early in the 19th century the Tutsi king established the borders, controlling the majority Hutu through cattle ownership and fighting skills, before the first Europeans from Germany arrived in 1894

• Colonisation oft this part of Africa was disputed by Germany, Belgium and the UK

• But tin 1910 it was agreed that Germany would control Rwanda adn they allowed the existing structure to continue

• After the formation of the UN Belgium was given trusteeship adn they restricted Tutsi power

• Unrest between the Hutu and the Tutsi minority increased and a state of emergency was declared; Belgium used military forces to restore order

• In 1962 the UN terminated Belgiums trusteeship making Rwanda independent with the Hutus gaining control

• Many Tutsi fled due to fear of persecution

• In 1973 there was a coup led Habyarimana (Hutu) who became president an the constitution was suspended and only one political party allowed

Civil war in 1990 and 1992

President Juvenal Habarimana shot down in 1994 there was a genocide with 0.5 - 1million people killed (mostly Tutsis)

The superior forces of the RPF ended the genocide by taking over the country

Unrest today with human rights absuses with many refugees and asylum seekers

Examples of corporation Tax havens

• the British Virgin Islands specialise in incorporating offshore companies and have a 0% tax rate. This means that a TNC sets up a subsidiary company and registers it to the British Virgin Islands so that they can avoid tax

• Ireland - offers 12.5% cooperation tax (20% in the UK)

• Switzerland - offers secure banking, coorperation tax avoidance and a range of offshore services

Benefits of tax havens

• The Cayman Islands are now among the worlds most successful financial sector with over 100,000 registered companies

• Financial services now gerneate 55% of the Isalnds GDP per capita there was $58,800 (14th world highest)

• The Caymen islands ae among the worlds largest offshore financial sectors

• 40 of the world top investments banks and insurance companies are lisenced there

t- his si due to 0% personal income tax rate and low cooperation taxes

Drawbacks of tax havens

• huge offshore companies and the super rich pay no tax on their profits or income

• Many are associated with polictial instability and corruption n

• Major TNCs and wealthy expatriates (those who live in a country in which they are not citizens) rest their cash in safer ones

• This means big companies are avoiding paying tax

• E.g in USA in 2015 invest bank J.P Morgan reported American companies were holding over $2trillion in cash overseas

• Apple the leading company held nearly $158 billion - or 98% of its total cash - abroa

Case study - tax havens on the poorest counties in Africa

• A 2014 report by Christian Aid (NGO) said that Africa has the highest proportion of assets held abroad of any world region.

• The secrecy surrounding global financial flows makes the amounts involved difficult to quantity, but a report by the African Developemnt Bank and the

• Illicit fincanil flwo were draining $1.2 to $1.3 trillion a year from Africa

• Average annual utflows between 200 and 2008 is $50 billion (estimates by GFI)

• In comparison to money coming in by FDI inot Africa in 2008 is just $62 billion

• They reduced amount of money to invest in the country - increasing inequality

• Because money is often kept offshore in sec ret, it avoids being taxed, reducing the money available for government spending on public service and other investments

Why do IGOs not object tax havens

National governments se investment form TNCs to generate investment and wealth. Therefore most governments and IGOs such as world bank accept thr growth of tax havens

How much did the worlds richest 62 people own in 2016

• about $1.76 trillion - about the same as the poorest 3.6 billion

What does gini index show

• A high gini value shows more wealth is concentrated among a few

• A low gini value shows more equitable wealth distribution

Facts about extreme inequality

• 1 in every 4 person dies

• People cant get vaccines, access to health care and food

• Covid - 19 created an inequality explosion - billionaires saw fortunes grow more during covid 19 than they Have in the lat 14 years, since pandemic began a new billion has been created every 26 hours

• Since 1995 the top 1% have captured nearly 20 times more of global wealth than the bottom 50% of humanity

Bolivia case study (Neo - liberalism)

• Neo - liberalism often creates poverty in development countries and some governments ave promoted alternative models

• Evo Morales was selected in 2006 to turn against Neo - liberalism and embark on a programme to undo 20 yers of privatisation and influence to IMF

• This is becuase the IMF had regulated in big profits for TNCs whihc had leaked out of the country

Bolivia established (CONALCAM)

• nationalised resources (e.g oil) with profits going to government rather than private shareholders

• Reduced rim art exports and used these to boost domestic manufacturing of previously imported products (known as import substitution)

• Redistributed wealth to the campesino (peasant classes) by guaranteeing prices fro food products

• The domestic strategy depended on nationalising Bolivias oil and gas industries

• TNCs had previously claimed 82% of their value - Morales government took 80%

It started benefiting form

• increased gas connections (835%) electricity (150%) and telecoms by (300%)

• Improved health, education enrolment, pensions and incomes

• Reduced wealth inequalities and lower government debts

• The demand for domestically manufactured goods drove sustained annual growth of over 5% between 2006 and 1012

What was the aim of establishing IMF and world bank in 1994

• to stabilise global finances after the Great Depression of the 1930s and massive costs of WW2 whihc was drawing to an end

• In 1947 the WTO was established to aid the development of trade links between nations

Five steps in which world bank and IMF said they would help and the benefits of these

• reduce tarrifs and protection for domestic industry - unemployment, lack of self - sufficiency constantly forced to import from developed countries

• Remove or decrease financial regulations - issues with monopoly, pollution and even child labour may re - emerge

• Remove or reduce state control of industries (privatisation) - the country and it resources serve the interest of foreign corporations and a small elite. Less money for social utilities such as water

• Cut social spending to reduce debt - poorly educated generation, not equipt fr skilled jobs, welfare spending cut which affects the poorest

• Increase interest rates to reduce inflation - only extremely wealthy can afford to borrow, puts small companies it of bussiness

Jamaicas structural adjustment programme

• Jamaica become independent t from Britain i n 1962,

• Government made policies to support health and education, nationalise industries and increase taxation on foraging investment and encourage agricultural self sufficiency

• These projects struggled because of the oil crisis in 1970s

• Interest rates rose at the start of 1980s, debt payments increased exponentially  from 16% - 35% in 1986.

• This gave the IMF and world bank the opportunity to impose large - scale SAPs in return for loans

• 1980s - number of nurses fell by 60%, currency devaluation made cost of food increase

• Spending on housing provision and health care was cut

• People struggled to pay for daily food, transport and clothing

• Ten years alter the governess tried Neo - liberal policies but they dint work and there’s been little progress 1990 - 96% of children completed primary school

• In 2014 only 88% did

• 1990 - 79 mothers died in childbirth for every 100,000 births

What does HIPC aim to do

Reduce national debts by partiallly overwriting them to 0 in return for SAPs. Conditions - each country has to shows good financial management and lack of corruption - those governments had t spend the savings gained on poverty reduction, education and health care

Three positive changes for Uganda (after debt cancellation)

• education rose, free primary schooling for all was introduced

• Literacy rates increased from 56% in 1990 to 78% in 2015

• Investment in water and sanitation means that 79% now have access to clean water in comparison to 44% in 1990

• Investment in agriculture and better roads led to improved access to food

• The percentage of Ugandans living below poverty lien has decreased form 55% in 1990s to 24.5% in 2010

Why might Uganda still need more help

• proportion of undernourished people has now risen again and worse than before debt cancellation

• Economic growth has been slow, Uganda still has considerable debts

What are some of the environmental challenges

• a hole in the ozone layer form CFCs

• Mangraors are threatened by economic developemtn of tropical coastlines for tourism

• Trade in animals and plants

• Tidal marshes are threatened by rising sea levels

• Swamps are threatened by the encroachment of urban areas

The Montreal protocol - what is it

it absorbs some of the suns harmful rays, making it safer for life to live on earth. In the 1970s scientists realised that industrial chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were damaging the ozone layer.

1987 - UN set up an agreement between countires to limit and eventually ban the production and use of CFCs and other ozone-damaging chemicals. Called the Montreal Protocol on substances

Positives and setbacks of the Montreal Protocol

• phasing out 98% of the ozone damaging chemicals that were being emitted in the 1990s. The biggest areas of ozone damage, above the Antarctic has shown signs of recovery

• In 2012 - 2017 there was an increase in emissions of one type of CFC suggesting that some countires broke the global ban in this period. The sage of the Antatvia may not fully recover until around 2100

CITES - what is it

it is the convention on international Trade in Endangered of Wild Flora and Fauna. International agreement involving 180 governments about trading wild plant and animal species as well as products made from them. The agreement covers around 6000 animal species and 32,000 plant species. These are sorted into three categories, depending on the high risk of them being traded internationally.

Positive and challenges of CITES

Positives - has helped make trade more sustainable and protect some specie. For example the vicuña were seriously endangered in the 1970s becuase of the demand for its fur, but the populations have now recovered (grew over 450,000 by 2020)

Difficulties they face - sanctions are rarely imposed, membership is voluntary and it can be slow to take action. E.g pangolins were designated as threatened with extinction in 2014 but weren’t added to CITES most endangered list till 2017

UN convention on law of the sea

• the United Nations convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is an international treaty that covers the governance of the sea, including environmental management and the use of marine resources. Allows countries to fish wiht sustainable limits, the convention ensures that all countries that sign up cooperate in protecting the marine environment

Set backs of the UN convention on the law of the sea

• no overarching treaty that covers all aspects of marine conservation and sustainability. UNCLOS is hard to enforce - for example some countries ge around the restrictions in fishing by moving theri cathc onto other oats in international waters

Helsinki water convention - what does it do

many countires share water resources, in 1996 the convention on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes - set up in Helsinki by the UN to help countires manage their shared water resources in a sustainable way

Positives adn set backs of the Helsinki water convention

Positives - water convention has helped countries to develop agreements about specific water resources, e.g the protection of the Rhine. Also monitors and researches the water quality e.g chloride levels,

Set backs - however not all countries have joined the water convention - as of 47 countires have ratified/ approved  the convention

The Antarctic treaty - what is it

• ensures its governed peacefully and used for scientific research only

• Established in 1959 is an agreemtn about how to sustainably manage Antarctica’s ecosystems it has now been signed by 55 countries. Relies are :

  • Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons - no army bases or weapons are allowed on Antarctica

  • Countries should cooperate on scientific research in Antarctica by sharing plans, reasearch and results

  • Antarctica should remain in the global commons - individual ontires cant make any claims to it

  • Is successful as it ended territorial claims and has remained largely unexploited. Bases and equipment can be inspected at any time although expections dont occur very often.

  • The protocol of environmental protection to the Antarctic treaty was signed in 1991 and added to the Antarctic treaty, focuses on protecting the fragile environment and banning oil mining. It alos set up rules to help protect Antarctica plants and animals, regulate waste disposal and prevent pollution

Set backs of the Antarctic treaty

there’s no system to ensure all the countires abide by the rules, if there are disputes between cuntries then they are encouraged to negotiate, otherwise disputes can be taken to international court of justice. The number of countries involved in the treaty can’t their different priorities can make decisions around further environ protection slow.

Threats to te Antarctic treaty - climate change is causing warming in the area, whic can increase melts rates and encourage the spread of non - native plants

How have strong nationalist movements created smaller independent nations (Scotland)

• populaiton 5.5 million

• Main earning in form oil and gas industries

• Some would like independence but to retain membership of the EU

• Has developed government with responsibility for education, health, police, prisons and culture sport

• Currently largest party is SNP and first minister is Nicola Sturgeon

• Referendum occurred in 2014 but independence was rejected, turnout 85%

• In future there may be more devolved powers to the Scottish parliament rathr then full independence

• Once the UK has left the EU after 2019 the SNP might propose another referendum, however this will depend on the support the Peary gets at the next Greenland election

Why do some people feel disillusioned by globalisation

• some feel a growing sense of isolation and detachment due to the pace of globalisation

• Some have lost trust in the system as they fell a lack of control

• Some feel that globalisation has led to low wages and loss of employment

• Some fear a world increasingly run by stemless and faceless TNCs.

Why weee people;el in ria de Jneiro protesting at the 2016 Olympic Games

• Brazil was triggering econcomically and the games were expensive

How has nepotism contributed to syrias failure as a state

• nepotism is a form of corruption in whihc power handed to family and friends

• Since 2000 the economy has largely been run by a group of entrepreneurs closely associated with the ruling family

• Government ministers were mostly relations of the ruling family

• Some have established large fortunes by illegal means

• A cousin of the president gained virtual monopoly over mobile services, restaurant chains, property and banking