Neural Control of Human Movement

A collection of vocabulary flashcards designed to aid in studying key concepts and terms related to the neural control of human movement.

Cerebral Cortex

Responsible for perception, conscious decisions, planning, execution, and accuracy of movement.

Pyramidal Cells

One of the two primary types of cells in the cerebral cortex, associated with motor control.

Stellate Cells

The second primary type of cell in the cerebral cortex, generally involved in local processing of information.

Layer II (External Granular Layer)

A layer of the cerebral cortex primarily involved in intracortical communication.

Layer IV (Internal Granular Layer)

The input layer of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory information from the thalamus.

Layer V (Ganglionic Layer)

The output layer of the cerebral cortex containing large pyramidal cells that send output from the cortex.

Brodmann Areas

Regions of the cerebral cortex with specific functions, like motor control and sensory processing.

Basal Ganglia

A group of nuclei in the brain associated with motor control and the initiation of voluntary movements.

Direct Pathway

A basal ganglia pathway that facilitates the initiation of voluntary movement.

Indirect Pathway

A basal ganglia pathway that suppresses competing motor plans.

Hypotonia

Diminished resistance to passive limb displacement, often associated with cerebellar disorders.

Ataxia

Lack of coordination, often resulting from cerebellar dysfunction.

Cerebellum

Responsible for ensuring smooth, harmonious movement and involved in motor learning.

Reticular Formation

A collection of nuclei in the brainstem involved in various functions including motor control, autonomic functions, and sensory processing.

Spinothalamic Tract

Carries pain, temperature, and crude touch sensory information to the somatosensory cortex.

Declarative Memory

Conscious recall of facts (semantic) and events (episodic).

Non-declarative Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and habits, such as motor skills and conditioning.

Sensitization

An increased behavioral response to a stimulus following exposure to a noxious or intense stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning an association between a behavior and its consequence (reward or punishment).

Hippocampus

A brain structure critical for the formation of new declarative memories and spatial navigation.

Inverse Kinematics

The process of determining joint configurations needed to reach a specific point in space.

Motor Redundancy

The existence of multiple ways to achieve the same movement goal, considered a challenge in motor control.

Principle of Reafference

The brain's ability to use sensory feedback to adjust movement and posture dynamically.

Abundancy

A concept suggesting that multiple solutions exist for motor tasks, which is a preferred approach over redundancy.

Dorsal Premotor Cortex

encodes the relative position of the target and specifies movement amplitude, direction and speed

ventral premotor cortex

encoding planning of hgih level goals and contains mirror neurons

supplementary motor area

involved in movement sequencing, inhitiation and motor execution of complex movements and coordination between different body parts.

pre supplementary motor area

involved in higher-level motor planning and response inhibition to sudden task changes

primary somatosensory area

reponse to tactile information and joint movement

parietal association cortex

sensory guidance of motor behavior and spatial awareness

temporal association crotex

recognition of sensory stimuli and storage of factual (Sematic)knowledge

frontal association cortex

organization of behavior and working memory

Limbic Association cortex

complex functions related to emotion and episodic memory

Information (ascending information) comes into the cerebral cortex from what two primary places?

thalamus and other cortical areas

Cerebral Cortex

Responsible for perception, conscious decisions, planning, execution, and accuracy of movement.

Primary Motor Area

The area of the brain responsible for major motor output control of limbs and trunk musculature.

Ataxia

Lack of coordination, often resulting from cerebellar dysfunction.

Dorsal Column Pathway

Carries sensory information such as fine touch and vibration to the primary somatosensory cortex.

Spinothalamic Tract

Carries pain, temperature, and crude touch sensory information to the somatosensory cortex.

Declarative Memory

Conscious recall of facts (semantic) and events (episodic).

Non-declarative Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and habits, such as motor skills and conditioning.

Sensitization

An increased behavioral response to a stimulus following exposure to a noxious or intense stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning an association between a behavior and its consequence (reward or punishment).

Hippocampus

A brain structure critical for the formation of new declarative memories and spatial navigation.

Inverse Kinematics

The process of determining joint configurations needed to reach a specific point in space.

Motor Redundancy

The existence of multiple ways to achieve the same movement goal, considered a challenge in motor control.

Principle of Reafference

The brain's ability to use sensory feedback to adjust movement and posture dynamically.

Abundancy

A concept suggesting that multiple solutions exist for motor tasks, which is a preferred approach over redundancy.

Primary Somatosensory Area

Response to tactile information and joint movement.

Temporal Association Cortex

Recognition of sensory stimuli and storage of factual (semantic) knowledge.

Cerebral Cortex

Responsible for perception, conscious decisions, planning, execution, and accuracy of movement.

Ataxia

Lack of coordination, often resulting from cerebellar dysfunction.

First Order Neurons

Neurons that carry somatosensory information into the spinal cord and have cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia.

Spinothalamic Tract

Carries pain, temperature, and crude touch sensory information to the somatosensory cortex.

Declarative Memory

Conscious recall of facts (semantic) and events (episodic).

Non-declarative Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and habits, such as motor skills and conditioning.

Sensitization

An increased behavioral response to a stimulus following exposure to a noxious or intense stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning an association between a behavior and its consequence (reward or punishment).

Hippocampus

A brain structure critical for the formation of new declarative memories and spatial navigation.

Inverse Kinematics

The process of determining joint configurations needed to reach a specific point in space.

Motor Redundancy

The existence of multiple ways to achieve the same movement goal, considered a challenge in motor control.

Principle of Reafference

The brain's ability to use sensory feedback to adjust movement and posture dynamically.

Abundancy

A concept suggesting that multiple solutions exist for motor tasks, which is a preferred approach over redundancy.

Primary Somatosensory Area

Response to tactile information and joint movement.

What are the two places from which information comes into the cerebral cortex?

The thalamus and other cortical areas.

Outgoing (descending information) from the cerebral cortex goes to what five places?

Striatum, Brainstem nuclei, Spinal cord, Basal pons, Thalamus.

What are the regions relevant to the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and others?

Basal ganglia, cerebellum (the pons), red nucleus, reticular formation, and the spinal cord.

What is the difference between convergence and divergence?

Convergence: different cortical cells activate the same group of motor units, resulting in similar actions.

Divergence: stimulating one or more similar cortical cells activates different groups of motor units to move different body parts.

What are the effects of diseases or disorders of the basal ganglia?

Excessive involuntary movements (Huntington’s disease) and movement poverty/slowness (Parkinson’s disease).

What are the five paired nuclei of the basal ganglia?

Caudate nucleus,

putamen,

globus pallidus,

subthalamic nucleus,

and substantia nigra.

Input into the basal ganglia comes from what two areas? Which nuclei receive this information?

Input comes from the cerebral cortex and thalamus. The caudate nucleus and putamen (striatum) receive this information.

What is the difference between the direct pathway and the indirect pathway?

Direct pathway facilitates the initiation of voluntary movement; indirect pathways suppress competing motor plans.

What are the primary signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease?

Parkinson’s disease: hypokinetic, loss of dopamine in the substantia nigra.

Huntington’s disease: hyperkinetic, atrophy of the striatum.

What are the primary functions of the basal ganglia?

Facilitates the selection and initiation of voluntary movements.

What is the ratio of inputs to outputs in the cerebellum?

40:1.

What are the four common symptoms of cerebellar disorders?

1. Hypotonia - diminished resistance to passive limb displacement (muscle weakness).

2. Astasia abasia - inability or difficulty to stand or walk.

3. Ataxia - lack of coordination.

4. tremor - at the end of movement when attempting to stop (action or intention tremor).

List the cerebellar neurons, inputs/outputs, and their functions.

Stellate cells: inhibitory, inhibit Purkinje cells;

Basket cells: inhibitory, inhibit Purkinje cells;

Purkinje cells: sole output from cortex, inhibit deep cerebellar nuclei;

Golgi cells: inhibitory, inhibit granule cells;

Climbing fibers: excitatory, powerfully excite Purkinje cells;

Mossy fibers: excitatory, excite granular cells;

Granule cells: excitatory, target Purkinje, Golgi, stellate, basket cells.

What type of information is brought into the cerebellum by input neurons?

Motor information (from the cortex) and sensory information (from the body), including proprioception and balance information.

Where does information go when it leaves the cerebellum?

Information leaves primarily through the deep cerebellar nuclei and travels the superior peduncle, targeting the thalamus, red nucleus, and vestibular/reticular formation.

What are the primary functions of the cerebellum?

Ensuring smooth, harmonious movement.

What is red nucleus and its function?

A large group of cells located in the rostral midbrain involved in motor control of the upper extremities and communicates with the cerebellum.

What is the reticular formation?

A collection of nuclei scattered over the brainstem, facilitating motor, oculomotor, autonomic, sensory, circadian, and mood-related functions.

What is the vestibular nuclei?

Located in the medulla and pons, integrating information from vestibular afferents, and plays a major role in equilibrium, postural control, and eye movements.

What is the function of the superior colliculus?

Transforms sensory input from multiple sensory modalities into motor output and helps direct the eyes towards visual stimuli of interest.

What is the difference between first order, second order, and third order neurons?

First order neurons carry somatosensory information into the spinal cord (cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia).

Second order neurons relay between first order and the thalamus.

Third order neurons relay information from the thalamus to the somatosensory cortex.

What does the Spinothalamic Tract carry?

Carries pain, temperature, and crude touch sensory information to the somatosensory cortex via the thalamus.

What does the Spinocerebellar Tract carry?

Carries unconscious proprioception/coordination to the cerebellum.

What is the Pyramidal Tract?

Includes the corticospinal tract (limb + trunk) from the motor cortex to the internal capsule and medulla, and the corticobulbar tract arising from the motor cortex face area.

What does the Rubrospinal tract originate from?

Originates in the red nucleus of the midbrain and primarily controls flexor muscles in the upper extremity.

What does the Vestibulospinal tract control?

Postural control, adjusting posture and balance based on sensory information.

What does the Reticulospinal tract modulate?

Involuntary movements and helps with posture.

What is the function of the Tectospinal tract?

Involves head-eye movements and originates in the superior colliculus of the midbrain, turning the head in response to visual/auditory stimuli.

What is the function of the Olfactory nerve?

Smell.

What is the function of the Optic nerve?

Vision.

What is the function of the Oculomotor nerve?

Eye movement.

What is the function of the Trochlear nerve?

Eye movement.

What is the function of the Trigeminal nerve?

Facial sensation.

What is the function of the Abducens nerve?

Eye movement.

What is the function of the Facial nerve?

Facial expressions.

What is the function of the Glossopharyngeal nerve?

Swallowing, taste, and salivation.