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neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
dendrite
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
action potential
the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.
resting potential
the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
Reuptake
process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
Agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
antagonist
inhibits a neurotransmitter
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
somatic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of muscles and internal organs and glands.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
EEG
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain; regulates sleep/relaxation
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus
a neural structure that directs eating, drinking, body temperature, and sexual behavior; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage; necessary for making new memories
Cerebrum
Largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory.
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
frontal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
parietal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
temporal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. It may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change