Lecture 4 - Interrogations and False Confessions

When and where is the FPSYC 3210 midterm exam scheduled?

The exam is scheduled for June 2nd, 2026, at 1:10 PM in Charles 216.

What is the format and duration of the midterm exam?

The exam is 2 hours long and consists of $40$ multiple-choice questions (MCQ) and $5$ short answers.

What percentage of the midterm exam content is strictly from the textbook?

About $10\%$ of the content will be strictly from the textbook.

How is the police interrogation process defined?

It is an interpersonal process whereby a police officer asks a suspect about their involvement in a crime, which can be custodial or non-custodial.

What are the two main rights communicated through police cautions during detention or arrest?

The right to remain silent and the right to retain and instruct counsel.

According to the lecture, what is a limitation of the right to remain silent during police questioning?

The right is not guaranteed in the sense that police can continue to talk to and question suspects even when the right is invoked.

Does a suspect have the right to have counsel present during an interrogation?

No, they have the right to retain and instruct counsel, but they do not have the right to have counsel present during the interrogation.

What were the findings of Eastwood and Snook (2010) regarding understanding of the right to silence when presented verbally?

Only $4\%$ of undergrads understood all parts of the caution when presented verbally.

What percentage of undergrads in the Eastwood and Snook (2010) study understood the legal counsel warning when they read it at their own pace?

$32\%$ understood the entire warning when reading it.

What are three reasons cited for why people do not understand their rights upon detention or arrest?

Police deliver cautions too quickly, the wording is too complex, and the information exceeds what can be stored in short-term memory.

According to research by Snow et al. (2024), how is a suspect viewed if they remain silent compared to when they deny the crime?

The suspect is viewed as less cooperative and less rational than when they deny committing the crime.

What three elements constitute the 'Interrogation Trilogy' according to Dufraimont (2011)?

Voluntariness, Right to Silence, and Right to Legal Counsel.

What are the three different interrogation approaches that replaced third-degree tactics?

Accusatorial approach, information-gathering approach, and a hybrid of the two.

What is Phase 1 of the Reid technique called?

The Behavioural Analysis Interview (BAI).

How many questions are involved in the Behavioural Analysis Interview (BAI)?

The BAI consists of $15$ questions.

What is the specific goal of Phase 2 of the Reid technique?

To obtain a written confession through a nine-step accusatorial interrogation.

What is the difference between minimization and maximization techniques in the Reid Technique?

Minimization uses 'soft sell' tactics to provide moral justification (e.g., blaming the victim), while maximization uses 'scare tactics' to intimidate (e.g., exaggerating evidence).

What is the first step of the nine-step accusatorial interrogation in the Reid technique?

Step 1: Direct, positive confrontation.

What is the final step of the Reid technique's nine-step process?

Step 9: Written confession.

What does the acronym PEACE stand for in the information-gathering model?

Preparation & Planning, Engage & Explain, Account, Closure, and Evaluation.

Why is the PEACE model recommended over the Reid technique?

It results in similar numbers of true confessions but fewer false confessions.

In the context of 'get tough' interrogation approaches, what is reactance?

The adoption or strengthening of an attitude or action that is contrary to the desired attitude or action.

What is the name of the hybrid interrogation approach used by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police?

The Phased Interview Model (PIM).

Which phases of the Phased Interview Model (PIM) are drawn from the PEACE model?

Phases 1, 2, 3, and 6.

Under what condition does the Phased Interview Model (PIM) revert to the Reid technique?

The model reverts to the Reid technique in Phases 4 and 5 if deception is detected.

What is a Mr. Big ploy?

A technique where an undercover police operation uses an elaborate ruse to obtain confessions in a non-custodial setting.

What are the four stages of a Mr. Big ploy?

1. Intelligence probe, 2. Introduction, 3. Scenario development, and 4. Evidentiary scenario.

What happens during the evidentiary scenario stage of a Mr. Big operation?

The target is told they must confess all past crimes to the crime boss (Mr. Big) to stay in the organization; they are arrested if they confess to the crime of interest.

Why is it difficult to scrutinize the progression of a Mr. Big operation?

Usually, only the final meeting with Mr. Big is recorded.

What did the Supreme Court of Canada rule in R. v. Hart (2014) regarding Mr. Big confessions?

Confessions from Mr. Big operations are assumed inadmissible unless the Crown can demonstrate reliability and that the confession's importance outweighs potential bias.

What is investigator bias?

When officers enter an interrogation believing the suspect is guilty, leading them to seek and interpret information that confirms that belief.

How does investigator bias affect the physical interrogation process?

It leads to more guilt-presumptive questions, more pressure to confess, and more techniques used to judge the suspect as guilty.

How is a false confession defined?

An admission to a criminal act that the confessor did not commit.

What percentage of cases in the Canadian Registry of Wrongful Convictions contained false confessions?

$8\%$ of the cases.

What are the three ways false confessions are typically discovered?

Discovery that no crime occurred, apprehension of the actual perpetrator, or scientific evidence (e.g., DNA) clearing the suspect.

What are the three types of false confessions?

Voluntary, Coerced-compliant, and Coerced-internalized.

What is a voluntary false confession?

Falsely confessing to a crime without being pressured or coerced by the police.

What are two reasons a person might give a voluntary false confession?

Desire for notoriety, inability to distinguish fact from fantasy, a need to be punished, or protecting someone else.

What is a coerced-compliant false confession?

A confession where the suspect knows they are innocent but confesses to escape a stressful interrogation or gain a promised reward.

What is a coerced-internalized false confession?

A confession where the suspect, usually vulnerable or suggestible, comes to believe they actually committed the crime as a result of the interrogation.

What are the situational risk factors for false confessions under the control of the legal system?

Minimization and Maximization Tactics, False Evidence, The Bluff Tactic, The Bait Question, and Faulty Forensic Evidence.

What are the dispositional risk factors for false confessions?

Age, Mental Impairment, Suggestibility, and Compliance.

What vulnerability factors contribute to coerced-internalized false confessions?

Substance abuse, inability to detect observed versus suggested information, and severe anxiety or guilt.

According to the Cumulative Disadvantage Framework, what is an effect of manipulative police tactics at Stage 2?

An increased likelihood of falsely confessing.

How do false confessions affect the investigation of the actual perpetrator?

Police investigations typically end once a confession is obtained, even if the real perpetrator remains at large.

What social and psychological issues do exonerated individuals often experience after wrongful conviction?

Difficulties with trust/relationships, PTSD, isolation, and low self-worth.

Do exonerated individuals in Canada have access to the same reintegration programs as sentenced offenders?

No, unlike sentenced offenders, people who are exonerated do not have access to government programs to help them reintegrate.

What are two general recommendations to reduce false confessions?

Video-recording interrogations and adopting an evidence-based investigative interviewing approach.

What should be required before an interrogation is conducted, according to Kassin et al. (2025)?

Police investigators should be required to have a confirmed basis.

What is the topic of the next lecture according to the notes?

Juries and Courtroom Bias.

The midterm exam for FPSYC 3210 is scheduled for __________.

$$June\,2^{nd}\,2026$$

The location for the closed-book midterm is __________.

$$Charles\,216$$

A police interrogation is an interpersonal process whereby a police officer asks a __________ about their involvement in a crime.

suspect

The __________ are used as a historical example of a case where bad interrogation practices led to false confessions.

West Memphis Three

Legal rights upon detention or arrest are typically communicated through __________, which are often read verbatim from a card.

cautions

In Canada, the right to __________ is guaranteed, but does not provide the right to have a lawyer present during interrogation.

retain and instruct counsel

According to research by Eastwood and Snook (2010), only __________ of undergrads understood all parts of the right to silence caution when presented verbally.

$$4\%$$

In the study by Eastwood and Snook (2010), __________ of participants understood the legal counsel warning when provided a written version.

$$32\%$$

Cautions are often not understood because they contain more information than what can be stored in __________ memory.

short-term

The "Interrogation Trilogy" consists of voluntariness, the right to silence, and the __________.

right to legal counsel

Historically, police used __________ tactics, which involved physical abuse and isolation to obtain confessions.

third-degree

The __________ technique is a popular accusatorial approach to interrogation composed of two main phases.

Reid

Phase 1 of the Reid technique is the __________ Analysis Interview (BAI).

Behavioural

The Behavioural Analysis Interview (BAI) consists of __________ questions used to detect guilt.

$$15$$

In the Reid technique, the primary goal of Phase 2 is to obtain a __________.

written confession

__________ techniques are soft sell tactics that provide moral justification for actions, such as blaming the victim.

Minimization

__________ techniques are scare tactics that involve exaggerating evidence or intimidating the suspect.

Maximization

The __________ model is an information-gathering approach that results in fewer false confessions compared to accusatorial methods.

PEACE

"Get tough" approaches can lead to __________, which is the adoption of an attitude contrary to the interrogator's desired outcome.

reactance

The stages of the PEACE model include Preparation & Planning, Engage & Explain, __________, Closure, and Evaluation.

Account

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police uses a hybrid interrogation approach known as the __________ Model.

Phased Interview

In the RCMP's Phased Interview Model, Phase 4 is the __________.

Version challenge

A __________ is an undercover operation that uses an elaborate ruse to obtain confessions in a non-custodial setting.

Mr Big ploy

The stage of a Mr Big ploy where an undercover officer befriends the target is called the __________.

Introduction

In a Mr Big operation, the target is told they must confess all past crimes to the __________ to stay in the organization.

crime boss

The Supreme Court of Canada case __________ ($2014$) ruled that Mr Big confessions are assumed inadmissible unless proven reliable.

R. v. Hart

__________ occurs when an officer enters an interrogation already believing the suspect is guilty and seeks information to confirm that belief.

Investigator bias

Confession evidence is often the most __________ form of evidence in court and is difficult for juries to ignore.

potent

In Canada, __________ of cases in the Canadian Registry of Wrongful Convictions involved false confessions.

$$8\%$$

A __________ false confession occurs without any pressure or coercion from the police.

voluntary

Vulnerable or highly suggestible persons are most at risk of making a __________ false confession.

coerced-internalized

A __________ false confession is made to escape a stressful interrogation or gain a promised reward.

coerced-compliant

Dispositional risk factors for false confessions are factors not under the control of the legal system, such as __________.

suggestibility

The __________ tactic is a situational risk factor where the interrogator pretends to have evidence that does not exist.

Bluff

The __________ Framework describes how innocents wrongly targeted for police questioning face increasing disadvantages across five stages.

Cumulative Disadvantage

In the Cumulative Disadvantage Framework, Stage 4 covers __________, which virtually guarantees a conviction.

Guilty Pleas

One consequence of false confessions is that police investigations usually __________ once a confession is obtained.

end

Exonerated individuals often experience psychological issues such as __________, isolation, and low self-worth.

PTSD

Unlike sentenced offenders, people who are __________ do not have access to government reintegration programs.

exonerated

Research by Snow et al. ($2024$) found that participants viewed a suspect who remained silent as less __________.

cooperative

Dufraimont ($2011$) identified the "Interrogation Trilogy", which includes the right to silence and the right to __________.

legal counsel

In Phase 2 of the Reid technique, the __________ question is used to present a suspect with two incriminating choices.

alternative

The final stage of the Mr Big ploy is the __________ scenario.

Evidentiary

Kassin et al. ($2025$) recommends that police have a __________ before an interrogation is conducted.

confirmed basis

According to Eastwood and Snook ($2010$), only __________ of participants understood legal counsel warnings when presented verbally.

$$7\%$$

The concept of __________ states that the trial judge must decide if a confession is admissible based on the circumstances of the interrogation.

voluntariness

A desire to protect someone else from harm is a possible cause for a __________ false confession.

voluntary

In the Cumulative Disadvantage Framework, Stage 2 refers to the __________.

Custodial Interrogations Process

Police view coercive tactics as a "__________" to convince guilty people to talk.

necessary evil

The subsequent lecture topic after Interrogations and False Confessions is Juries and __________.

Courtroom Bias