Global Politics - Peace & Conflict Key Terms

Peace

A free state of security and calmness to coexist in harmony and freedom

Conflict

a perceived incompatibility of interests, needs and goals of parties

Violence

a perceived incompatibility of interests, needs and goals of parties

Basic human needs

security, welfare, identity & freedom

Direct Violence

Violence that can be physically perceived (physical/verbal) and can be clearly pointed out — highly interdependent with structural and cultural violence

Indirect Violence - Structural

Institutionalized forms of discrimination and exclusion reflecting unequal power — organized from structural frameworks, processes, deprivation & inequality

Indirect Violence - Cultural

Aspects of a culture that can be used to justify or legitimize the use of direct/structural violence

Negative Peace

"the absence of violence, of war" - Galtung criticized as being the 'low-hanging fruit'

Positive Peace

"the presence of justice, the structures that create and sustain peace" - Galtung

Galtung’s Violence Triangle

Johan Galtung

"violence is a needs deprivation"
"an act of violence is something stopping your actual circumstance from being more peaceful"

Dustin Sharp

believes that peace is a continuum for which one is not able to distinguish (positive or negative) as circumstances are relative

Morton Deutsch

views conflict as a universal feature of society

Mack and Snyder

define conflict as two or more partier with opposing goals linked to resources or positions available

Kissinger and Morgenhaus - Peace as a Balance of Power

Argue that peace and balance on an international scale cannot go hand in hand due to free-riders and chaining

Feminist Peace Theory

looks at overlapping cases of marginalization to include a variety of perspectives into peaceful institution building

Religious Peace

different faiths have varied views:
- Hinduism / Jainism: Ahimsa
- Buddhism: abstaining from harming all living things
- Christianity: "love thy neighbour as ourself"
- Islam: calls people to practice peace and not destroy lives
- Ubuntu: interconnected view of humanity

Latent Conflict

A hidden state of dispute

Manifest Conflict

Open visible disagreements

Galtung’s ABCs

A conflict analysis model
- Attitudes
- Behaviour
- Contradiction

Dugan’s Nested Model of Conflict

A conflict analysis model
- Issue Specific: an incident
- Relational: relational conflicts which contribute to the conflict
- Structural Subsystem: established hierarchies, politics and economic systems
- Structural System: broader norms and social values

Non-Violence

a philosophy of not resorting to violence as a response to conflict or method to overcome barriers in the search of greater equality - has negative connotations

Principled Non-Violence

Religion or ethics

Strategic Non-Violence

the most effective tool for a desired outcome:
- more legitimacy
- increased information technology
- end of proxy wars
- maintains fairness

Pacifism

make and build peace (moral, anti-war, personal, feminist, universal, pragmatic, conscientious objectors)

Internal Conflict

Moral Struggle - Personal

Interpersonal Conflict

A disagreement between 2 or more individuals

Interstate Conflict

A conflict that occurs between 2 states for territorial acquisition or to influence policy

Intrastate Conflict

A conflict that occurs in a single state, usually government and a non-state actor (like guerillas, rebel groups, terrorist groups, ethnic/religious groups or lobby groups)

Non-State Conflict

Conflict between 2 or more organized groups for: territorial disputes, competition over resources, religious tensions or power struggles (like cartels in Mexico)

Extrastate Conflict

conflict between a state and non-state actor outside of the states borders (like the US pursuing Al-Qaeda)

Identity Conflict

Aspects of our culture, sense of self and belonging

In Group Conflict

Favor its own members

Out Group Conflict

Draws suspicion on other parties

Interest-Based Conflict

Clashes over scarce resources

Greed vs Grievance

Collier and Hoeffler find that greed is a catalyst for conflict that is driven in economic resource disputes that fuel negative emotions

Institutional Conflict

Structures of a society and how power is distributed

Ideological Conflict

Discussions over governance, resource allocation and exclusivity/oppression

John Burton Conflict Resolution

proposes that basic human needs - identity, freedom, safety and belonging - are non-negotiable and must be met to achieve lasting conflict resolution

Galtung’s PIN Framework

- Positions: explicit demands or claims made by parties in negotiation
- Interests: understanding "why" a party claims its position
- Needs: non-negotiable requirement essentials

Rothman's ARIA Identity Conflict Resolution

Successful in being a cyclical tool for re-evaluation

Antagonism: exert frustration

Resonance: common goods and responsibilities

Intervention: develop mutually beneficial solutions

Action: strategize implementing solutions

The Geneva Convention

A set of international treaties established in 1949 which establish legal standards for the humanitarian treatment of individuals during armed conflict. It has become customary law in which the moral legitimacy of the treaty makes everyone legally bound to the conventions (even though 196 countries have signed it)

Geneva Convention I

Protect the wounded, such, medical and religious personnel during conflict

Geneva Convention II

Care for the wounded, sick and shipwrecked at war

Geneva Convention III

treat prisoners of war with humanity

Geneva Convention IV

protect all civilians, including those in occupied territory

Geneva Convention Additional Protocol I

Protection of victims in international armed conflict by prohibiting attacks on citizens and prohibiting racist/anti-colonial regime conflicts.

Geneva Convention Additional Protocol II

Protection of victims in non-international armed conflicts such as prohibiting collective punishment, guarantees for individuals not involved in conflict and protecting survival.

Geneva Convention Additional Protocol III

Identities a Red Crystal, alongside the Red Cross and Red Crescent, for protection.

High Contracting Parties

Countries that have agreed to follow the Geneva Conventions

Parties to the Conflict

Countries that have not agreed to follow the Geneva Conventions but are still legally bound to them - mostly regarding the new Protocols I, II and III

Disputant

Person involved in a conflict, the primary party. They have a direct stake in the outcome of a conflict (primary party)

Conflictual

Behaviour that is in disagreement with the actions of a disputant (primary party)

Moderators

Negotiators of peace in a conflict but are unlikely to put anything on the line to help their side win (secondary party)

Hardliners

Support their favoured disputant while actively working to recruit support from others to support their side (secondary party)

Conflict Profiteers

They do not ideologically support any side of the conflict - they may be impartial - yet they supply resources to the conflict for their financial gains (secondary party)

Spoilers

Use tactics to prevent peace negotiations and construct actions which favour violence. These would like to see the profit end with genocide or forced migration (secondary party)

Third Parties to Conflicts

Mediators, arbitrators or dialogue facilitators

Bystanders

Those who are neither engaged nor willing to speak out on a conflict to promote reconciliation

Non-Combatant Parties

Parties which do not engage in fighting, such as children, but are negatively affected by conflict

Violent State Actors

Actors within the state which have the power to impose violence (militaries, paramilitaries - like militias who are trained citizens - & NATO)

NATO Treaty Article 5

An attack against one member is considered an attack against all. It provides:
- Collective defence
- Crisis Management
- Cooperative Security and Deterrence
- Partnership and Dialogue
- Responses to terrorism and cyber threats

Violent Non-State Actors

Terrorist Groups (extremist religious or ideological groups that target civilians), Rebel Groups (groups with political or economic complaints that target government facilities) and Mercenary Groups (private corporations hired to fight)

Non-Violent State Actors

Diplomats (negotiators with diplomatic immunity such as freedom from legal action) and UN Peacekeepers (as they can one fire when fired-upon)

Non-Violent Non-State Actors

Coined as Track II Diplomacy involving churches, think tanks, humanitarian organizations, art, entertainment, sports, student exchanges, NGOs (Red Cross, Amnesty International) and Medicine / Humanitarian Assistance.

Civilians

Person who is not a member of the armed police or army, nor is actively engaged in the conflict. 90% of deaths in conflict have been from civilians. They can also be affected by hunger and poverty and contain vulnerable groups such as children, women and people with disabilities.

Children at War

In 2005, the UN Security Council passed 6 grave violations against children in armed conflict: recruitment and use of children by armed actions, the killing / maiming of children, sexual violence, abduction of children, attacks on schools and hospitals & denial of access to humanitarian aid

Just War Theory (JWT)

morally justifiable reasons to engage in conflict (legitimacy)

Criticized as: having a state centric approach when there is a rise in non-state conflict, too easy justification for pacifists and overlooks the impacts of war on minorities

Jus Ad Bellum

right to go to war: just cause (like UN Article 51, Chapter VII, R2P), legitimate authority, just intentions (not seeking self or national interest), probability of success, last resort & proportionality

Jus In Bello

right conduct during war (International Humanitarian Law - like the Geneva Conventions): prohibition of civilian targets, prohibition of poisonous gas or biological weapons, excessive force, protection of prisoners of war and protection of medical personnel

Jus Post Bellum

justice after war: war crime trials, reconstruction and reconciliation

Religious/Cultural Justifications of War

May argue that religious traditions or a historical narratives of wrong justify attacks

Guerilla Warfare

hit and run tactics by small, mobile groups of fighters who use knowledge of local populations to fight larger militaries

Counterinsurgency (COIN)

strategies undertaken by a government or occupying power to suppress an insurgency (armed forces fighting the government) - like the US in Afghanistan

Terrorism

the use of surprise attacks, guerilla warfare, civilian targets and media coverage to create fear to achieve a given goal (through the government, civilians, infrastructure, military personnel or religious sites)

Cyber Conflict

an asymmetrical form of warfare through breaching data systems to expose: injustices, criminal organizations or make political statements

Non-Violence Conflict

- demonstration (collective stance)
- protest (disapproval)
- boycott (abstaining use)
- petition (formal written request)
- strike (work stoppage)
- civil disobedience (refusal to obey laws)

Chenoweth and Stephan on Non-Violence

Has had a surge in the last 50 years as it is able to attract a more diverse set of participants. Between 1900 to 2019, 325/628 mass movements were peaceful protests

Thaler on Non-Violence

Peaceful movements are not always useful in authoritarian governments so Chenoweth and Stephan ignore local contexts. Non-violence can put a strain on the group as they become larger targets and initiation of violence from a state rallies more support