POLI SCI

social justice

the pursuit of fairness and equality in society, addressing issues like wealth distribution, access to education, and systemic discrimination.

fairness

the quality of making judgments that are free from discrimination or bias.

justice

the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, law, and fairness, ensuring that individuals receive what they are due.

equality of opportunity

the principle that all individuals should have the same chances to pursue life goals, regardless of their background or circumstances.

political equality

the principle that all individuals have the same rights and opportunities to participate in political processes, ensuring equal representation and voice in governance.

laissez-faire capitalism

an economic system where the government minimizes its involvement in the economy, allowing free market forces to dictate production and pricing.

limited government

a political system where the powers of the government are restricted by law, typically through a constitution, to protect individual freedoms and ensure accountability.

liberty

the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views.

political culture

the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments that shape the political behavior and values of a society. It encompasses the shared norms and practices that influence how citizens perceive politics and their roles within it.

political efficacy

belief that one can influence government and politics

disinformation

false information that is shared intentionally to reach a political goal

political knowledge

information about the formal institutions of government, political actors, and political issues

citizenship

membership in a political community that confers legal rights and carries participation responsibilities

pluralism

competition among groups and organized interests for influence in the government

political power

influence over a government's leadership, organization, or policies

representative democracy (republic)

a system of government in which the populace selects representatives, who play a significant role in governmental decision-making

majority rule, minority rights

the democratic principle that a government follows the preferences of the majority of voters but protects the interests of the minority

direct democracy

a system of rule that permits citizens to vote directly on laws and policies

totalitarian government

a system of rule in which the government recognizes no formal limits on its power and seeks to absorb or eliminate other social institutions that might challenge it

authoritarian government

a system of rule in which the government recognizes no formal limits but may nevertheless be restrained by the power of other social institutions

constitutional government

a system of rule in which formal and effective limits are placed on the powers of the government

democracy

a system of rule that permits citizens to play a significant part in the governmental process, usually through the election of key public officials

popular sovereignty

a principle of democracy in which political authority rests ultimately in the hands of the people

oligarchy

a form of government in which a small group—landowners, military officers, or wealthy merchants—controls most of the governing decisions

autocracy

a form of government in which a single individual—a king, queen, or dictator—rules

politics

conflict over the leadership, structure, and policies of governments

government

institutions and procedures through which a territory and its people are ruled

settler colonialism

a form of colonialism that seeks to remove Native peoples from land and replace them with a new settler population

enslavement

a system of slavery in which individuals are held as property for the purpose of forced labor so that profit can be extracted

Articles of Confederation

America's first written constitution; served as the basis for America's national government until 1789

confederation

a system of government in which states retain sovereign authority except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government

Virginia Plan

a framework for the Constitution that called for representation in the national legislature based on the population of each state

bicameral legislature

a legislative assembly composed of two chambers or houses

New Jersey Plan

a framework for the Constitution that called for equal state representation in the national legislature regardless of population

unicameral legislature

a legislative assembly having only one chamber or house

Great Compromise

the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that gave each state an equal number of senators regardless of its population but linked representation in the House of Representatives to population

Three-Fifths Compromise

the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that stipulated that for purposes of apportioning congressional seats only three-fifths of enslaved people would be counted

Bill of Rights

the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791; they ensure certain rights and liberties to the people

separation of powers

division of governmental power among several institutions that must cooperate in decision-making

federalism

system of government in which power is divided, by a constitution, between a central government and regional governments

expressed powers

specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress (Article I, Section 8) and to the president (Article II)

Elastic Clause

the concluding paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution (also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause), which provides Congress with the authority to make all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out its enumerated powers

judicial review

the power of the courts to review actions of the legislative and executive branches and, if necessary, declare them invalid or unconstitutional; the Supreme Court asserted this power in Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Supremacy Clause

Article VI of the Constitution, which states that laws passed by the national government and all treaties are the supreme law of the land and superior to all laws adopted by any state or any subdivision

amendment

a change added to a bill, law, or constitution; the process of making such change through constitutional procedure

checks and balances

mechanisms through which each branch of government is able to participate in and influence the activities of the other branches; examples include the presidential veto power over congressional legislation, the Senate's power to approve presidential appointments, and the Supreme Court's power of judicial review of congressional enactments

Federalists

those who favored a strong national government and supported the Constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787

Antifederalists

those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government and who were opponents of the Constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787

Federalist Papers

a series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay supporting ratification of the Constitution

tyranny

oppressive government that employs cruel and unjust use of power and authority

limited government

a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution

federalism

a system of government in which power is divided, by a constitution, between a central government and regional governments

unitary system

a centralized government system in which lower levels of government have little power independent of the national government

intergovernmental relations

the processes by which the three levels of American government (national, state, local) negotiate and compromise over policy responsibility

expressed powers

specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress (Article I, Section 8) and to the president (Article II)

implied powers

powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution; such powers are not specifically expressed but are implied through the expansive interpretation of delegated powers

Necessary and Proper Clause

Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which provides Congress with the authority to make all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out its expressed powers

reserved powers

powers, derived from the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, that are not specifically delegated to the national government or denied to the states

concurrent powers

authority possessed by both state and national governments, such as the power to levy taxes

police power

power reserved to the state government to regulate the health, safety, and morals of its citizens

Full Faith and Credit Clause

provision from Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution requiring that the states normally honor the public acts and judicial decisions that take place in another state

Privileges and Immunities Clause

provision, from Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, that a state cannot discriminate against someone from another state or give its own residents special privileges

home rule

power delegated by the state to a local unit of government to manage its own affairs

dual federalism

the system of government that prevailed in the United States from 1789 to 1937 in which most fundamental governmental powers were shared between the federal and state governments

Commerce Clause

Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which delegates to Congress the power “to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States and with the Indian tribes”; this clause was interpreted by the Supreme Court in favor of national power over the economy

grants-in-aid

programs through which Congress provides money to state and local governments on the condition that the funds be employed for purposes defined by the federal government

categorical grants

congressional grants given to states and localities on the condition that expenditures be limited to a problem or group specified by law

cooperative federalism

a type of federalism existing since the New Deal era in which grants-in-aid have been used strategically to encourage states and localities (without commanding them) to pursue nationally defined goals; also known as intergovernmental cooperation

regulated federalism

a form of federalism in which Congress imposes legislation on states and localities, requiring them to meet national standards

preemption

the principle that allows the national government to override state or local actions in certain policy areas; in foreign policy, the willingness to strike first in order to prevent an enemy attack

states' rights

the principle that the states should oppose the increasing authority of the national government; this principle was most popular in the period before the Civil War

devolution

a policy to remove a program from one level of government by delegating it or passing it down to a lower level of government, such as from the national government to the state and local governments

block grants

federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent

New Federalism

attempts by Presidents Nixon and Reagan to return power to the states through block grants

general revenue sharing

the process by which one unit of government yields a portion of its tax income to another unit of government, according to an established formula; revenue sharing typically involves the national government providing money to state governments

unfunded mandate

a law or regulation requiring a state or local government to perform certain actions without providing funding for fulfilling the requirement