Pupil's sexual and gender identities

How do schools contribute to the construction of pupils’ sexual and gender identities?

Schools play a key role in shaping and reinforcing pupils’ gender and sexual identities through everyday interactions, peer pressure, and teacher behaviour. These processes often support what **R. W. Connell calls hegemonic masculinity—the dominance of heterosexual male identity over female and LGBTQ+ identities. Through mechanisms such as peer policing, labelling, and institutional practices, schools reinforce traditional gender norms, often marginalising those who do not conform.

What are double standards and how do they reinforce gender inequality in schools?

A double standard occurs when different moral rules are applied to different groups. Sue Lees (1993) found that boys gain status for sexual activity, while girls are negatively labelled (e.g. “slag”) for similar behaviour. Male sexual behaviour is often ignored or even encouraged, whereas girls are judged and controlled. Feminists argue this reflects patriarchal ideology, reinforcing male dominance by regulating female behaviour and maintaining inequality through social control.

How does verbal abuse reinforce gender and sexual identities?

Verbal abuse is a key way pupils enforce gender norms. Connell describes a “rich vocabulary of abuse,” where labels like “slag,” “gay,” or “queer” are used to police behaviour. Sue Lees (1986) found girls were labelled negatively whether they were sexually active or not, showing the labels are about control rather than truth. Carrie Paechter argues such name-calling reinforces male power and regulates identity. Andrew Parker (1996) found boys could be labelled “gay” simply for being friendly with girls. These labels maintain traditional gender roles and punish deviation.

How does male gaze operate in schools?

The male gaze, identified by Mairtin Mac an Ghaill, refers to the way male pupils (and sometimes teachers) view girls as sexual objects, judging their appearance and reinforcing gender expectations. This acts as a form of surveillance, where girls are constantly evaluated and pressured to conform to feminine norms. It also allows boys to demonstrate heterosexual masculinity to peers, while those who do not participate risk being labelled as deviant.

How do male peer groups reinforce masculinity and affect achievement?

Male peer groups play a central role in constructing masculine identities. Studies by Mac an Ghaill (1994) show different masculinities exist, such as working-class “macho lads” who reject school and middle-class “real Englishmen” who present effortless success. Boys who work hard may be labelled negatively (e.g. “gay” or “effeminate”), discouraging academic effort. This shows how masculinity is linked to anti-school attitudes, particularly among working-class boys, reinforcing underachievement.

How do definitions of masculinity change within schools?

Research by Mac an Ghaill and Redman & Mac an Ghaill shows that dominant forms of masculinity can change over time. In lower school, toughness and anti-school attitudes dominate, while in sixth form, a more middle-class identity based on academic success becomes valued. This reflects the changing social environment of the school, showing that masculinity is not fixed but shaped by context, particularly class composition.

How do female peer groups regulate gender identity?

Female peer groups also police behaviour and identity. Louise Archer found that working-class girls gain symbolic capital by performing a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity (e.g. focusing on appearance). Girls who fail to conform risk being labelled negatively and excluded. This shows that peer groups act as a form of social control, reinforcing expectations about femininity and limiting individual freedom.

What tensions do girls face in constructing their identities?

Ringrose found that girls face a conflict between maintaining friendships and competing for male attention. They must balance being loyal and non-competitive with being attractive and desirable. This creates a “high-risk” situation where girls may face “slut shaming” if too sexual or “frigid shaming” if not sexual enough. This demonstrates how identity is tightly controlled and constrained by peer expectations.

How does academic success affect girls’ identities?

Girls who prioritise academic success may adopt a “boffin” identity, which often involves appearing asexual and rejecting traditional femininity. Diane Reay found this can lead to social exclusion from peers. Becky Francis adds that middle-class girls may respond by labelling others as “chavs.” This highlights how educational success can conflict with peer acceptance and identity.

How do teachers reinforce gender identities?

Teachers contribute to reinforcing gender norms through their behaviour and expectations. Chris Haywood and Mairtin Mac an Ghaill (1996) found that teachers discipline boys for “acting like girls,” reinforcing gender stereotypes. They may also ignore sexist behaviour or blame girls for attracting it. Sue Askew and Carol Ross (1988) found male teachers often “rescue” female colleagues, reinforcing the idea that women are less capable. These actions subtly maintain traditional gender roles.

What are the strengths and limitations of researching gender identity in schools?

Researching gender identity can be challenging due to its sensitive nature and the influence of the researcher’s gender on participants’ behaviour. Some behaviours (e.g. verbal abuse) are easy to observe, while others (e.g. subtle power dynamics) are harder to interpret. Access may be restricted if schools fear negative publicity. Additionally, pupils may not be consciously aware of how they reinforce gender norms, limiting the usefulness of interviews. However, the topic offers rich insights into everyday interactions and identity formation.