Unit 1 & 2 ATAR Psychology

Literally everything on the syllabus + more (help)

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): Hypothesis

It is hypothesised that the 8 rhesus monkeys will prioritise contact comfort over nursing comfort across both condititions.

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): Aim

To determine the importance of contact comfort as opposed to nursing comfort in developing a bond between a primary caregiver and an infant

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): IV, DV, Research Design

IV: The mother surrogate which lactates
DV: Time spent with cloth and wire mother
Research Design: Experimental

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): Method

Immediately after birth, 8 newborn rhesus monkeys are placed into one of 2 conditions:
EC1: Wire mother lactated
EC2: Cloth mother lactated

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): Findings

Rhesus monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother regardless of which one provided food.
Both conditions spent, on average, 16-17 hours per day with the cloth mother, and less than 30 minutes on the wire mother.

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): 3 Contributions

• Emphasised importance of providing a child with an enriched childhood

• Proved that love is not developed solely from the provision of food

• Showed that parents need to take a more active role in their child’s development

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): 3 Criticisms

• The study has never been replicated

• Humans are more complex than rhesus monkeys, therefore we cannot generalise

• Low ecological validity due to monkeys being taken out of their habitats, meaning they may have acted abnormally

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment (1958): 3 Ethical Issues

• Informed consent: the monkeys are not able to understand the risks of an experiment and cannot consent

• Protection from harm: the monkeys were harmed due to a lack of social interation and isolation from habitats

• Right to withdraw: the monkeys were not given the opportunity to return to their natural habitat

The 3 R’s in animal ethics

Replacement with other subjects if possible that will experience less pain and stress

Reduction of animals in the experiment in total

Refinement of experimental conditions in order to increase the wellbeing of the animals

The 7 ethical guidelines applied to human research

1. Protection from physical / psychological harm

2. Informed consent

3. Withdrawal rights

4. Limited deception with debreifing

5. Confidentiality post-research

6. Privacy during research

7. Voluntary participation

The role of ethics comittees

Approving and overseeing experiments to ensure ethical guidelines are kept, and closing any experiments that go against ethical guidelines.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

0-2: Sensori-motor
2-7: Preoperational 
7-12: Concrete operational 
12+: Formal operational

Sensori-motor stage

0-2. Children learn and develop through use of their senses, developing early schemas.
They develop object permanence at around 8 months, and begin speaking late into the period.

Sensori-motor: Object permanence

The ability to understand that once an object is not in sight, it still exists. Children learn this through sensory experimentation. Time of development varies, but it tends to be around 8 months.

Sensori-motor: Invisible Displacement

An example of this task involves grabbing a childs attention with a toy, then hiding that toy. If the child tries to find the toy, they have developed object permanence.

Pre-operational stage

2-7, development of symbolic representation, big imaginations, learning through play, animism, centration, and egocentrism is common. Seriation is developed.

Pre-operational: Egocentrism

A common thing in younger children, where they believe all points of views and opinions match their own.

Pre-operational: Centration

The inability for children to focus on all aspects of a scenario. They will fixate on one area and ignore all others. For example, seeing themselves with more cookies despite all being smaller than their siblings.

Pre-operational: Seriation

The childs ability to group items based off height, weight, etc.

Pre-operational: Animism

The childlike belief that objects have human-like qualities and are capable of action.

Pre-operational: Symbolic Thought

The use of certain items to represent other people, places, or things.

Pre-operational: Three Mountains Task

The child is required to describe the scene of a mountain from another persons perspective, testing egocentrism.

Concrete operational stage

7-12, concrete understanding of logic and conservation, such as conservation of mass, number, volume

Concrete Operational: Conservation Task

A test in which a material is manipulated. If the child understands that the material is still the same, they understand conservation.

Formal operational stage

12+. Can understand abstract and hypotheticals, can predict outcomes of hypothetical scenarios.

Formal Operational: Pendulum Task

The child will be given a pendulum and will be able to methodically test ways to make the pendulum swing faster - string length, weight, height.

Piaget’s studies were limited because…

He used anecdotal evidence, rarely would properly establish the origins of his subjects, and had bias when selecting subjects

Piaget’s studies were beneficial because…

He permanently changed the education systems across the world for the better, enhanced peoples understanding of development, and paved the way for better future studies and experiments

Bowlby’s Definition of Attachment

An emotional bond that is characterised by the need to frequently seek out and maintain proximity to a particular attachment figure, particularly in times of distress, in order to maintain comfort and a sense of security

ASCMI Acronym

The various aspects of Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment

Adaptive

Social Releases

Critical Period

Monotropy

Internal Working Model

Attachments are adaptive:

Babies have social releases:

Unlock the biological tendency of adults to care for them.

These include physical releases (‘baby face’ and bodily proportions), and behavioural releases (laughing, crying)

Critical Period

0-2. The primary caregiver and infant foster a connection. If no connection is made or if the primary caregiver disappears, it can lead to maternal deprivation or privation.

Sensitive Period

0-5. Bowlby would later revise his theory, stating that a connection can still form after the critical period, however it is far more difficult.

Monotropy

The biological tendency of young children to bond very closely to a single person - this evolved from a survival mechanic

The Internal Working Model (Definition)

A prototype for all future social relationships, allows individuals to control, predict, and manipulate interactions with others.

Main features of the Internal Working Model:

A model of others as being trustworthy

A model of the self as being worth of healthy relationships and love

A model of the self as a good communicator

Privation

The lack of any maternal connection ever being formed with a primary caregiver

Maternal Deprivation

The loss of the primary caregiver, whether through death or other means

Bowlby’s Hypothesis: Continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant, such as (7 things):

Lack of ability to form meaningful connections, lack of guilt, antisocial behaviour, delinquency, delays in sexual development, sleep and appetite issues

Applications of Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Allowed for therapists to use childrens behavioural issues to predict why they may be having those issues, allowed for greater efficiency in family counseling, emphasised the importance of providing a child with an enriched childhood.

Criticisms of Bowlby’s Theory

Focus on mother-child relationship without accounting for other important childhood relationships, some question whether attachment patterns may differ cross-culturally and socially

Two main nervous systems

Central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Branches of the CNS

Brain and spinal cord

Branches of the PNS

Somatic nervous system (SNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Branches of the ANS

Sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Receives sensory information from the PNS, and tells the PNS how to respond via motor neurons

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Carries information to and from the CNS, carrying motor messages to organs and muscles

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Controls all skeletal muscle movement, both voluntary and involuntary (reflexive). Carries messages to and from the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls and regulates non-skeletal muscles, such as the cardiac muscle and other internal organs

Sympathetic Nervous System

Controls fight or flight response - regulates glands and internal organs in high-intensity / stressful situations. Dilates pupils, increases heart rate, redirection of oxygen-rich blood

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms down the body after being initiated by the sympathetic nervous system. Contracts pupils, slows heart and breathing rate, and moves blood back to the digestive system

Motor Neurons

Efferent neurons, travel from the CNS to the PNS and carry messages instructing muscle movement

Sensory Neurons

Receives information from neuron receptors, carrying them from the PNS to the CNS. These are afferent.

Interneurons

Neurons that can both relay motor messages and recieve sensory messages. These are seen widely in the CNS.

The spinal cord

A band of nerve fibers running from the brain to the lower back. Protected by the spine bone structure, it serves as a connecting point between the brain and the PNS.

Dendrite

The receiving parts of the neurons, receiving chemical messages from other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A layer of fat insulating the axon and allowing for the electrical signals to travel faster.

Axon

The portion of the nerve cell that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and towards the axon terminals.

Cell body / soma

The core of the neuron containing the nucleus. It contains genetic information, maintains the neurons structure, and provides energy to drive activities.

Axon terminal

The end of the cell - these release neurotransmitters to transmit a chemical signal across the synapse and into the dendrite of another neuron.

Reuptake

The concept that any unused neurotransmitters are taken back into the axon terminal.

Vesicle

A small structure inside the axon terminal that contains neurotransmitters. When necessary, they open and release the neurotransmitters across the synapse.

Action Potential

The electrical message being transferred across the axon

Electro-chemical signal

The message travelling across neurons is referred to as ‘electro-chemical’ due to the electrical message travelling across the axon turning into a chemical signal once reaching the synapse.

The Synapse

The gap between two neurons allowing for the transfer of chemical messages from one neuron to the next.

Hindbrain

Controls various autonomic functions, such as breathing, heart rate, motor reflexes, and sleep/wake activity.

Frontal lobe (Location, 8 Functions)

Forebrain (at the front of the brain)

• Controls voluntary movement

• Planning and decision making

• Logic, reasoning, and problem solving

• Ability to organise information

• Expression of personality

• Recognition of emotions

• Speech production

• Impulse control

Parietal lobe (Location, 3 Functions)

Forebrain (top of the brain)

• Processing of tactile stimuli (temperature, pain, pressure, weight)

• Responsible for spatial awareness

• Responsible for the awareness of the location and movement of body parts

Temporal lobe (Location, 7 Functions)

Forebrain (aside the temples)

• Understanding speech

• Interpret auditory information

• Processes smell

• Facial recognition

• Recognition of bodily language

• Partly responsible for recognition of emotions

• Involved in long-term memory formation

Occipital lobe (Location, 4 Functions)

Forebrain (back of the brain)

• Processing of visual stimuli

• Interpretation of visual information

• Facial recognition

• Depth and distance perception

Hypothalamus (Location, 2 Functions)

Forebrain (sits below the thalamus)

• Regulates:

  • Sleep

  • Eating

  • Temperature

  • Sex drive

• Maintains homeostasis through hormones

Thalamus (Location, 2 Functions)

Forebrain (just above the brainstem)

• Has an influence on sleep patterns

• Relays sensory information from all senses (excluding smell) to the cortex

Cerebellum (Location, 4 Areas of Control)

Hindbrain (under the occipital lobe)

• Controls:

  • Balance

  • Coordination

  • Judgment of distance

  • Coordination of fine motor movement

Medulla Oblongata (Location, 3 Functions)

Hindbrain (lowest area of the brainstem)

• Relays info between the spinal cord and the brain

• Controls vital life processes, such as cardiovascular and respiratory systems

• If this is damaged, person is left braindead

Reticular Formation (Location, 3 Functions)

Midbrain (located within the length of the brainstem)

• Helps maintain wakefulness and alertness

• Aids in regulation of the sleep-wake cycle

• Can control what comes to conscious attention

  • This is done by controlling what sensory signals reach the thalamus / cerebral cortex

Broca’s Area (Location, Description)

Located in the left hemisphere’s frontal lobe.

Controls the physical motor act of speaking - when damaged, we can fully understand words and think of them, but have trouble speaking them and articulating them (Broca’s Aphasia)

Wernicke’s Area (Location, Description)

In the left hemisphere, encompassing the primary auditory cortex.

Controls our understanding of words and their meanings - if this area is damaged, we speak complete nonsense. We can say words that are coherent, but our ability to communicate those words with coherent grammar is difficult

Primary Motor Cortex

A headband-shaped construct located in the frontal lobe, on the border between the frontal lobe and parietal lobe.

Generates signals that control complex voluntary movements.

Primary Sensory Cortex

Sits right next to the primary motor cortex, only in the parietal lobe.

Responsible for processing somatic sensations.

Primary Auditory Cortex

It is located to the left of Wernicke’s area, around the very middle of the brain.

Processing of auditory stimuli. Different frequencies are represented in different areas of the cortex.

Primary Visual Cortex

Located at the back half of the occipital lobe, above the cerebellum.

Receives visual information, and sends it to other areas of the brain to be analysed and utilised.

Pre-Frontal Cortex (Location, 5 Functions)

In the anteriormost portion of the frontal lobe.

• Planning

• Decision making

• Expression of personality

• Moderation of social behaviour

• Controlling aspects of language

Amygdala

Controls the fear response of the brain and assesses the situation for danger.

Contralateral Control

The concept that the left side of the brain primarily controls the right side, and vice versa.

Left Hemisphere

The left side of the brain is primarily responsible for logic, reaoning, and language production.

3 Functions of the Right Hemisphere

Primarily responsible for imagination, spatial awareness, and awareness / appreciation of art.

Corpus Callosum

A bundle of nerve fibers that allow the left and right hemispheres of the brain to communicate. Plays a role in how we coordinate movements, and allows us to associate objects with their names without sight.

Lobotomy

A surgical process which involves the severing of connections within the pre-frontal cortex as a treatment for neurological disorders

Case Study: Phineas Gage

In the late 1840’s, Gage - a railroad foreman - survived an iron rod being blasted through his head, tearing out chunks of his brain.

Effects of the accident on Phineas Gage

His once gentle personality greatly shifted into a rude and profane man unable to control his emotions.

Case Study: Roger Sperry

Through severing the corpus calossum, Sperry discovered that the two halves of the brain can function independently from one another.

Roger Sperry’s Split-Brain Experiment: Method

Sperry would get the particpants to look at a black dot in the centre of a screen. When a word was flashed to the right of the screen, their left hemisphere would be able to say what they saw in word form. If flashed to the left of the screen, the right brain would interpret the word through drawing it.

Findings of Sperry’s study (contralateralism and hemispheric lateralisation)

He discovered in early studies that the brain was contralateral - one half of the brain controlled the other side of the body.
He also discovered that different sides of the brain have different functionalities - hemispheric lateralisation

About _____ patients in the US received a lobotomy, and Freeman himself carried out lobotomies on about _____, _____ of which were children. The youngest was _____ years old.

50,000, 3,500, 19, 4

Effects of Lobotomies (2 Intended and 5 Side Effects)

Intended effect: reduced tension and agitation (many early patients did get this)

Common side effects: Apathy, passivity, lack of initiative, poor concentration, general decrease in depth / intensity of emotion

Computerised Tomography (CT) Scans

• Uses a moving x-ray that rotates around the patient

• Captures cross-sectional images

• Shows abnormalities in the brain

  • Does not show activity

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

• Uses a strong magnetic field and radio frequency pulses

• Shows brain structures in far more detail than CT

• Not functional / moving

• More long and expensive than CT scans

Functional MRI (FMRI)

• Measures activity of the brain when neurons consume sugar

• Metabolically active areas light up, showing which areas of the brain are being used

• Can be used to locate tumours

• No use of radiation

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

• Measures total brain activity rather than isolated areas

• Used by placing electrodes on the scalp

• Measured via a wiggly line (brain waves and their frequency)

• Different brain waves for different states of mind