HIS101 Midterm

Nick Sydorenko

"Price Revolution of the 16th century"

"What: Sustained inflation across Europe. When: c.1500–1650. Where: Primarily Western Europe. Who: European populations and economies. Why: Caused by population growth increased demand and influx of New World silver raising prices."

"Holy Roman Empire"

"What: Loose political confederation of states. When: c.800–1806. Where: Central Europe. Who: Emperor and hundreds of princes. Why: Maintained order but lacked central authority leading to fragmentation."

"Peace of Augsburg (1555)"

"What: Religious settlement. When: 1555. Where: Holy Roman Empire. Who: Charles V and German princes. Why: Ended conflict by allowing rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism (cuius regio eius religio)."

"Edict of Nantes (1598)"

"What: Law granting limited religious toleration. When: 1598. Where: France. Who: King Henry IV. Why: Aimed to end French Wars of Religion by granting rights to Huguenots."

"Dutch Republic"

"What: Independent Protestant republic. When: Late 16th–18th centuries. Where: Netherlands. Who: Dutch merchants and political elites. Why: Formed after revolt against Spain becoming a major commercial and naval power."

"Thirty Years War (1618–1648)"

"What: Major European war. When: 1618–1648. Where: Central Europe. Who: Protestant and Catholic states plus major powers. Why: Began as religious conflict and became political struggle ending with Peace of Westphalia."

"Absolutism"

"What: System of centralized royal power. When: 17th–18th centuries. Where: Europe especially France. Who: Monarchs like Louis XIV. Why: Justified by divine right to maintain order and control."

"Cardinal Richelieu"

"Who: Chief minister to Louis XIII. What: Centralized royal power. When: 1624–1642. Where: France. Why: Weakened nobility and strengthened monarchy to make France dominant."

"Intendants"

"What: Royal administrative officials. When: 17th century. Where: France. Who: Appointed by the king. Why: Enforced laws collected taxes and extended royal authority over provinces."

"English Civil War (1642–1651)"

"What: Conflict over governance. When: 1642–1651. Where: England. Who: Royalists vs Parliamentarians. Why: Disputes over taxation authority and religion leading to execution of Charles I."

"Bill of Rights (1689)"

"What: Constitutional law limiting monarchy. When: 1689. Where: England. Who: Parliament and William and Mary. Why: Established parliamentary supremacy and protected individual rights."

"Scientific Revolution"

"What: Transformation in scientific thought. When: 16th–17th centuries. Where: Europe. Who: Scientists like Newton and Galileo. Why: Shifted toward observation experimentation and rejection of traditional authority."

"Cosmology"

"What: Study of the universe’s structure and origin. When: Ancient to modern. Where: Global. Who: Astronomers and physicists. Why: Seeks to explain how the universe works."

"Nicolaus Copernicus"

"Who: Polish astronomer. What: Proposed heliocentric theory. When: 1543 publication. Where: Europe. Why: Challenged geocentric model placing sun at center."

"Galileo Galilei"

"Who: Italian scientist. What: Supported heliocentrism with telescope observations. When: Early 1600s. Where: Italy. Why: Advanced experimental science but faced Church opposition."

"Universal Law of Gravitation"

"What: Law describing gravitational attraction. When: 1687. Where: Europe. Who: Isaac Newton. Why: Explained motion of objects on Earth and in space."

"Empiricism"

"What: Theory of knowledge from observation. When: 17th century. Where: England. Who: Thinkers like Locke and Bacon. Why: Emphasized experience over innate ideas."

"René Descartes"

"Who: French philosopher. What: Founder of rationalism. When: 17th century. Where: France. Why: Emphasized reason and doubt as path to knowledge."

"New Scientific Method"

"What: Process of inquiry using observation and experimentation. When: Scientific Revolution. Where: Europe. Who: Scientists. Why: Provided reliable way to discover natural laws."

"English Royal Society"

"What: Scientific institution. When: Founded 1660. Where: England. Who: Scientists and scholars. Why: Promoted experimentation and sharing of knowledge."

"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"

"Who: German philosopher and mathematician. What: Co-invented calculus. When: Late 17th century. Where: Europe. Why: Advanced mathematics and rationalist philosophy."

"The Enlightenment"

"What: Intellectual movement emphasizing reason and rights. When: 18th century. Where: Europe. Who: Philosophes. Why: Challenged traditional authority and promoted reform."

"The Philosophes"

"Who: Enlightenment thinkers. What: Advocated reform. When: 18th century. Where: Europe. Why: Promoted reason freedom and progress."

"The Encyclopedia"

"What: Collection of knowledge. When: Mid-18th century. Where: France. Who: Denis Diderot and contributors. Why: Spread Enlightenment ideas widely."

"Voltaire"

"Who: French writer. What: Critic of Church and monarchy. When: 18th century. Where: France. Why: Advocated freedom of speech and religious tolerance."

"Physiocrats"

"Who: Economic thinkers. What: Believed wealth came from agriculture. When: 18th century. Where: France. Why: Supported laissez-faire policies."

"Smolny Institute"

"What: School for noble girls. When: 18th century. Where: Russia. Who: Founded under Catherine the Great. Why: Reflected Enlightenment views on education."

"Mary Wollstonecraft"

"Who: English writer. What: Early feminist thinker. When: Late 18th century. Where: Britain. Why: Advocated women’s education and equality."

"Underground Press"

"What: Illegal publications. When: 18th century. Where: Europe. Who: Writers and printers. Why: Spread Enlightenment and revolutionary ideas."

"Salons"

"What: Intellectual gatherings. When: 18th century. Where: France. Who: Hosted by elite women. Why: Facilitated discussion and spread of ideas."

"Estates General"

"What: Representative assembly. When: Pre-1789. Where: France. Who: Clergy nobility and commoners. Why: Addressed financial crisis but highlighted inequality."

"Tennis Court Oath (1789)"

"What: Political pledge. When: 1789. Where: France. Who: Third Estate. Why: Committed to creating a constitution."

"Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)"

"What: Rights document. When: 1789. Where: France. Who: National Assembly. Why: Established equality liberty and sovereignty of the people."

"The Directorate"

"What: French governing body. When: 1795–1799. Where: France. Who: Five directors. Why: Attempted stability but was weak and corrupt."

"Napoleon Bonaparte"

"Who: French military leader. What: Became emperor. When: 1799–1815. Where: France/Europe. Why: Consolidated power and spread revolutionary reforms through conquest."

"Spinning Jenny"

"What: Textile machine. When: 1760s. Where: Britain. Who: James Hargreaves. Why: Increased thread production and efficiency."

"Coal and Iron"

"What: Key industrial resources. When: Industrial Revolution. Where: Britain and Europe. Who: Industrial economies. Why: Powered machinery and infrastructure."

"Railways"

"What: Transportation system. When: 19th century. Where: Europe. Who: Industrial societies. Why: Enabled rapid movement of goods and people boosting economies."

"Industrialization on the Continent"

"What: Spread of industry beyond Britain. When: 19th century. Where: Europe. Who: Governments and entrepreneurs. Why: Modernized economies and increased production."

"The Middle Classes"

"Who: Merchants professionals industrialists. What: Social class. When: 19th century. Where: Europe. Why: Gained wealth and influence through industrialization."

"Romanticism"

"What: Cultural movement emphasizing emotion and nature. When: Late 18th–19th centuries. Where: Europe. Who: Artists and writers. Why: Reaction against Enlightenment rationalism."

"English Gardens"

"What: Natural landscape design. When: 18th century. Where: England. Who: Landscape designers. Why: Reflected Romantic ideals of nature."

"Caspar David Friedrich"

"Who: German painter. What: Romantic landscape artist. When: Early 19th century. Where: Germany. Why: Emphasized emotion and nature’s power."

"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe"

"Who: German writer. What: Major literary figure. When: Late 18th–early 19th century. Where: Germany. Why: Explored emotion individuality and nature."

"Madame Anne-Louis Staël"

"Who: French intellectual. What: Promoted Romanticism and liberal ideas. When: Late 18th–early 19th century. Where: Europe. Why: Opposed Napoleon and influenced thought."

"Brothers Grimm"

"Who: German scholars. What: Collected folklore. When: 19th century. Where: Germany. Why: Preserved cultural traditions and promoted nationalism."

"Klemens von Metternich"

"Who: Austrian statesman. What: Conservative leader. When: Early 19th century. Where: Austria. Why: Opposed revolution and maintained traditional order."

"Congress of Vienna (1815)"

"What: Diplomatic meeting. When: 1815. Where: Vienna. Who: European powers. Why: Restored balance of power after Napoleon."

"Concert of Europe"

"What: System of cooperation. When: 19th century. Where: Europe. Who: Great powers. Why: Maintained stability and suppressed revolutions."

"Decembrists"

"Who: Russian officers. What: Failed revolt. When: 1825. Where: Russia. Why: Sought constitutional reform."

"German Fraternities"

"Who: Student groups. What: Promoted nationalism. When: Early 19th century. Where: Germany. Why: Supported unification and liberal reforms."

"Young Italy"

"Who: Nationalist movement. What: Sought unification. When: 1830s. Where: Italy. Why: Aimed to create a unified republic."

"Giuseppe Garibaldi"

"Who: Italian revolutionary. What: Military leader. When: 19th century. Where: Italy. Why: Helped unify Italy through campaigns."

"Camillo Cavour"

"Who: Italian statesman. What: Diplomat. When: 19th century. Where: Piedmont-Sardinia. Why: Led unification through alliances and modernization."

"Frankfurt Parliament"

"What: Assembly. When: 1848. Where: Germany. Who: Liberal representatives. Why: Attempted but failed to unify Germany."

"Otto von Bismarck"

"Who: Prussian leader. What: Architect of German unification. When: 1860s–1871. Where: Germany. Why: Used Realpolitik and war to unify states."

"Wars of German Unification"

"What: Series of wars. When: 1860s–1871. Where: Europe. Who: Prussia vs others. Why: Unified Germany under Prussian leadership."

"Luddites"

"Who: Workers. What: Machine breakers. When: Early 19th century. Where: Britain. Why: Protested job loss due to industrialization."

"Great Reform Bill of 1832"

"What: Political reform law. When: 1832. Where: Britain. Who: Parliament. Why: Expanded suffrage and reduced corruption."

"Karl Marx"

"Who: Philosopher and economist. What: Founder of communism. When: 19th century. Where: Europe. Why: Critiqued capitalism and emphasized class struggle."

"Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)"

"What: Socialist political party. When: Founded 1875. Where: Germany. Who: Workers and activists. Why: Advocated labor rights and democratic socialism."