Human Biology - Body systems

All body systems

Pharynx(throat)

Joins the mouth cavity to the oesophagus and larynx.

Epiglottis

cottage flap at the back of the pharynx that covers the trachea during swallowing.

Larynx

the structure at the top of the trachea that contains the vocal cords.

Trachea(windpipe)

the tube that takes air from the throat to the lungs.

What happens at the end of the trachea

it splits into two branches, each branch taking air into each lung.

Bronchi

the two primary bronchi branch from the trachea, which split into these secondary and tertiary bronchi.

Bronchioles

small air tube/branches in the lung.

Terminal bronchioles

the end of the bronchioles before they form the alveoli.

How are the bronchioles different from the bronchi

unlike the bronchi, bronchioles do not contain cartilage, they are made up of smooth muscle and elastin. This allows them to control the flow of air into the lungs, expanding when the body needs more oxygen.

What is the role of cilia and mucus in the bronchioles

protecting the lungs from contaminants.

Pleura

remembering covering the surface of the lungs.

Pleural fluid

a thin layer of fluid within the pleura that allows the lungs to move during breathing.

Alveoli

air sacs in the lungs.

What does the diaphragm do during inhalation

contracts and flattens.

What happens to the rib cage during inhalation

it moves upwards and outwards.

What happens to lung volume during exhalation

reduces volume.

What muscles are involved in breathing

intercostal muscles.

What is the role of intercourse in muscles

to move the rib cage.

Ventilation

the process by which air is moved into and out of the lungs.

Reasons why the lungs are well suited to their gas exchange function

alveolae give the lungs a huge internal surface area - so large amounts of gases can be changed in a relatively short amount of time. Each alveolus is well supplied with blood vessels so that as much blood as possible is close to the air in the alveolus - Continuous flow of blood helps to maintain a difference in concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air in the lungs. The membrane that forms the wall of the alveolus is very thin - so that gas molecules do not have to travel far when moving into or out of the blood.

Where are the lungs positioned

Deep inside the body to prevent excessive evaporation of the fluid that covers the respiratory services.

Why is it important for the membrane of the alveolus to be covered in a thin layer of moisture

so gases can diffuse into and out of the blood only when they are dissolved in fluid.

Why is it important to have consistent changing of air in the alveoli

it helps to ensure that there is always a concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood.

Pulmonary arteries

the artery that takes blood from the heart to the lungs.

Concentration gradient

is a difference in gas concentration between the air in the alveolae and the blood capillaries.

How is the concentration gradient for oxygen and carbon dioxide maintained

the constant flow of blood through the capillary and the movement of air injury and out of the alveolae as we breathe in and out.

The constant flow of blood through the capillaries

as the blood flowing through the capillaries around each alveolus picks up oxygen and loses carbon dioxide. It is replaced by more blood by being pumped into the capillaries. The new blood is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, so the concentration gradient is maintained.

Emphysema

a disease of the lungs that damages the alveoli caused by long term exposure to irritants.

Lung cancer

growth of a tumour in the lungs.

Pneumonia

a lung infection that causes fluid and mucus to build up in the alveoli causing difficulty breathing.

Tuberculosis (TB)

a lung infection caused by bacterium.

Asthma

an allergic condition that causes narrowing of the Airways and difficulty breathing.

What is blood composed of

plasma is 55%,

red blood cells is 41%,

white blood cells is 4%

Plasma

the fluid part of the blood in which the cells are suspended.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

One of these formed elements of the blood that contains haemoglobin but no nucleus.

Leucocytes (white blood cells)

One of the blood cells that contains A nucleus but no haemoglobin.

Thrombocytes (platelet)

One of the formed elements of blood's that is a fragment of cytoplasm enclosed in a membrane but lacking in nucleus.

Haemoglobin

the pigment in red blood cells that is involved in the transport of oxygen and some carbon dioxide through the body.

Oxyhemoglobin

oxygen combined with haemoglobin.

Chemical equation of the breakdown of oxyhemoglobin

haemoglobin + oxygen = oxyhemoglobin. Hb + O2 = HbO2

When does oxygen combine with haemoglobin

when the oxygen concentration is high.

Where does oxygen combine with haemoglobin

in the capillaries of the lungs.

What happens in the capillaries of the lungs

oxygen diffuses into the blood from the a in the alveoli.

What happens when the concentration of oxygen is relatively low

oxyhemoglobin is broken down into haemoglobin and oxygen.

Oxygenated blood

blood containing a lot of oxygen.

Deoxygenated blood

blood that contains little oxygen.

Why are red blood cells well suited to their function of oxygen transport

contain haemoglobin which is able to combine with oxygen, have no nucleus so there is more room for haemoglobin, a shape like black concave discs so the point biconcave centre increases the surface area for oxygen to exchange and the thicker edges give a large volume that allows room for the haemoglobin molecules.

How is carbon dioxide carried through the blood

7 to 8% is dissolved in the plasma and carried in a solution,

22% combined with a blow been part of haemoglobin,

70% is carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ions. HCO3

Carbaminohaemoglobin

a molecule resulting from a combination of carbon dioxide and haemoglobin.

Equation of carbonic acid that ionises into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions

carbon dioxide + water = carbonic acid = hydrogen ions + bicarbonate ions. CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = H+ +HCO3-

Metabolic wastes

a substance is produced by the cells that cannot be used an would be harmful if allowed to accumulate.

What are the most important organic wastes that are transported insulation in the blood plasma

urea, creatine and uric acid.

Vasoconstriction in term of blood clotting

The muscles in the walls of the small arteries that have been injured or broken constrict immediately to reduce blood flow.

Platelet plug

internal worlds of blood vessels are normally smooth but any damage creates a rough surface to reach platelets stick, these attracts others so that a plug is billed at the site of an injury.

Coagulation

blood becoming gel-like to form a blood clot.

Fibrin threads

form a mesh that traps blood cells, platelets and plasma who stop the threads stick to the damaged blood vessels And hold the clot in position.

Clot retraction

is the network of threads contracts, becoming denser and stronger, pulling the edges of the damaged blood vessels together.

What happens when serum is squeezed out

the cloud will drive forming a scab.

What is separating the left and right side of the heart

the septum.

Where does the right side of the heart collect blood from and send blood to

collect blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.

Where's the left side of the heart collect blood form and send blood to

receives blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.

Right atrium

receives blood from the body and passes it to the right ventricle.

Right ventricle

pumps blood to the lungs.

Left atrium

receives blood from the lungs and passes it to the left ventricle.

Left ventricle

pumps born to the body.

Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker than the wall of the right ventricle

it needs to be much stronger to pump blood through the blood vessels supplying the body.

Why are valves important to the heart

to ensure that the blood only flows in One Direction.

Blood vessels

they carry the blood to the cells of the body or to the lungs and then bring it back again.

Three types of blood vessels

arteries, capillaries and veins.

Vasoconstriction

decreasing the diameter of blood vessels constricting the flow of blood.

Vasodilation

increase the diameter of blood vessels, increasing the flow of blood.

Vasodilator

substance that produces a local widening or dilation of blood vessels.

Capillaries

microscopic blood vessels that link the arteries to the veins.

Vein

a blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart.

Inferior vena cava

a large vein carrying blood from the lower body to the right atrium.

Superior vena cava

the large vein taking blood from the top of the body to the right atrium.

Pulmonary vein

the vein that transports blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

Systole

the period when the heart muscle contracts.

Diastole

new. Over laxation of the heart during which it fills with blood.

Abo blood group system

a method of classifying blood types according to the antigens on the surface of the red blood cells.

Antigens

any substance capable of causing the formation of antibodies when introduced into the tissue.

Antibody

a substance produced in response to a specific antigen; it combines with the antigen to neutralise or destroy it.

What are the two antigens involved in their abo classification

Antigen A and Antigen B

What are the four antigen possibilities and what group do they match with

Group A matches with antigen A, Group B matches with antigen B, group AB has both antigens and group O has neither antigen.

Rh blood groups

Rh antigens is Rh+, no Rh antigens is Rh-

Whole blood transfusion

blood taken from a donor, with chemical added to prevent clotting.

Red cell concentrate transfusion

a component of the blood used in transfusions; produced by spinning blood in a centrifuge.

Platelet concentrate transfusion

a component of blood used in transfusions.

Cryoprecipitate transfusion

A blood product used in transfusions; produced by freezing the plasma and thawing it slowly.

Immunoglobulin transfusions

A group of proteins; antibodies are Immunoglobulin

autologous transfusion

a transfusion using the patient's own blood.

Lymphatic system

a system of vessels that drains excess fluid from the tissues.

Lymph vessels

a large vessel that collects lymph from the lymph capillaries.

Where are lymph nodes located

along the length of someone vessels.

Lymph nodes

an Oval shaped structure found on the attic vessels. It is involved in protection against infection.

Lymph

fluid returned to the blood from stop

How is the lymph moved throughout the lymphatic system

the smooth muscle layer of the vessels can contract to push the lymph along the vessel. The skeletal muscle surrounding the vessels are also able to contract, providing additional force and valves close when the pressure drops, preventing the backflow of length.

Digestion

the breakdown of food taken into the body ready for absorption into the cells.

Mechanical digestion

the physical breakdown of food particles.

Chemical digestion

the chemical breakdown of food particles.