Sociology Final Key Terms

Sociological Imagination

the ability to see the connection between personal troubles and larger public issues shaped by social forces (C. Wright Mills)

Functionalist Perspective

a macro-level view that sees society as a system of interrelated parts working together to promote stability and order

Conflict Theory

a macro-level view that sees society as an arena of inequality where powerful groups dominate others to protect their advantages

Symbolic Interactionism

a micro-level perspective that focuses on how people create and interpret meaning through everyday social interactions and symbols

Manifest Function

the intended and recognized consequences of a social pattern or institution

Latent Function

the unintended and often unrecognized consequences of a social pattern of institution

Dysfunction

a negative consequence of a social patter that disrupts the stability of functioning of society

Material Culture

the physical objects, tools, clothing, buildings, and technology that people create and use

Nonmaterial Culture

the ideas, beliefs, values, norms, symbols, and language that shape a culture but have no physical form

Values

culturally defined standards of what is desirable, good, and beautiful that guide social behavior

Norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

Folkways

norms for everyday, casual interaction; violating them brings strong social disapproval or punishment

Sanctions

rewards or punishments used to enforce norms and values

Ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture

Looking-Glass Self

the idea that our sense of self develops from how we imagine others perceive, judge, and respond to us (Cooley)

Resocialization

the process of learning new norms, values, and behaviors when entering a dramatically new social setting or role

Degradation Ceremony

a ritual in which a person’s old identity is publicly stripped away before a new identity is assigned

Master Status

a status that dominates how others perceive and interact with a person and often shapes their entire identity

Status Inconsistency

a situation in which a person ranks differently on various dimensions of social stratification (high income but low prestige)

Social Class

a group of people who share similar levels of property (wealth), power, and prestige

Income vs. Wealth

income is money received regularly; wealth is the total value of assets minus debts

Exchange Mobility

social mobility in which one person’s upward movement is matched by another’s downward movement

Intergenerational Mobility

change in social class position from one generation to the next within a family

In-Group

a group to which a person belongs and feels loyalty and identity

Out-Group

a group to which a person does not belong and often views with suspicion or hostility

Aggregate

a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but do not interact or feel connected

Authoritarian Leadership

a leadership style in which the leader makes all decisions, gives strict orders, and discourages questions

Validity

the extent to which a study or measurement tool actually measures what it claims to measure

Reliability

the extent to which a study or measurement tool produces consistent results when repeated

Random Sample

a sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Control Group

the group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison

Quantitative Data

data that can be measured and expressed numerically

Ascribed Status

a social position assigned to a person at birth or involuntarily later in life (race, sex, family background)

Achieved Status

a social position earned through individual effort, skill, or accomplishment

Structural Mobility

social mobility caused by large-scale changes in the economy or society

Reference Group

a group that people compare themselves to and use as a standard for evaluating their own behavior and attitudes

Primary Group

a small, intimate, long-term group characterized by face-to-face interaction and strong emotional ties

Dyad vs. Triad

a dyad is unstable because it ended if one leaves; a triad allows loss and is more stable

Expressive Leader

a leader who focuses on maintaining group harmony, resolving conflicts, and supporting members’ emotional needs

Laissez-Faire Leadership

a leadership style in which the leader provides little direction and allows group members to make their own decisions

Operational Definition

a clear, precise statement of exactly how a variable or concept will be measured in a study

Hypothesis

a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables

Experimental Group

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable being tested

Qualitative Data

data that describes qualities, experiences, or meanings and is usually expressed in words

Cultural Capital

non-financial assets such as knowledge, skills, education, and behaviors that give social advantages in school and society

Credentialism

the practice of requiring formal degrees or certificates for jobs or positions of power even when they are not strictly necessary for preforming that work or fulfilling the role

Hidden Curriculum

the unspoken lessons, values, and expectations that students learn in school alongside the official curriculum (obedience, responsibility, accountability)

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

a precision or expectation that causes itself to become true because people act in ways that make it happen

Grade Inflation

the tendency for average grades to rise over time while academic standards and achievement remain stable or decline

Concerted Cultivation

a middle-class parenting style that involves scheduling many structured activities, advocating for children, and teaching them to question authority

Graying of America

the increasing proportion of older people in the U.S. population and the social, economic, and political consequences that follow

Disengagement Theory

the theory that as people age, they naturally and voluntarily withdraw from social roles and relationships

Activity Theory

the theory that successful aging comes from staying active, maintaining social roles, and continuing meaningful activities

Continuity Theory

the theory that older adults try to maintain the same activities, behaviors, personalities, and relationships they had earlier in life

Primary Deviance

initial acts of rule-breaking that have little effect on a person’s self-concept or social status

Secondary Deviance

deviant behavior that results from society’s reaction and labeling; the person beings to see themselves as deviant

Stigma

a powerfully negative social label that changes a person’s self-concept and social identity and leads to discrimination

Labeling Theory

the theory that the labels society assigns to people affect their self-identity and feature behavior

Control Theory

the theory that people conform to norms because of strong social bonds and internal controls

Differential Association

the theory that people learn deviant or criminal behavior through close relationships with others who engage in that behavior

White-Collar Crime

crimes committed by high-status people in the course of their occupations

Milgram Experiment

a famous study showing that ordinary people are often willing to obey authority figures even when it means harming others

Groupthink

a situation in which group members prioritize harmony and consensus over critical thinking and realistic evaluation of alternatives

Face-Saving Behavior

actions people take to protect their self-image or avoid embarrassment in social situations

Absolute Poverty

the inability to meet the most basic needs for survival, such as food, clean water, shelter, and healthcare

Relative Poverty

seeing oneself as poor relative to others in their situational or personal society

Gender Stratification

unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige between men and women in society

Glass Ceiling

an invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing to higher positions in an organization

Dominant Group

the commanding group/culture in society; one that has the most power and weather, sets the culture and norms for others

Minority Group

the group with less power, wealth, and social status than the dominant group and often faces discrimination

Prejudice

a negative attitude or beliefs about a group based on stereotypes, usually without direct or personal experience with the group

Discrimination

unfair treatment or actions directed toward members of a group based on who makes up the group’s body population

Explicit Bias

conscious and openly expressed negative attitudes or beliefs about a group

Implicit Bias

unconscious and automatic negative attitudes or beliefs about a group

Institutional Discrimination

discrimination built into the policies, practices, and structures or organizations and institutions

Scapegoat

blaming a minority or less powerful group for problems that are actually caused by larger social or economic forces

Genocide

the systematic and intentional killing of a racial, ethnic, religious, or national group

Internal Colonialism

a situation in which a dominant group exploits and controls a minority group within the same country or society

Rationality

a focus on efficiency, calculation, and practical results rather than tradition or emotion

Bureaucracy

a large, formal organization characterized by hierarchy, rules, impersonality, division of labor, and hiring based on qualifications

Alienation

a feeling of powerlessness, meaninglessness, and disconnection from one’s work and its products (Marx)

Iron Law of Oligarchy

the tendency for power in large organizations to become concentrated in the hands of a small ruling elite

Demography

the scientific study of human populations, including size, composition, distributions, and changes over time

Demographic Transition

the historical process by which societies move from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates

Fertility Rate

the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her lifetime in a given population

Net Migration

the difference between the number of people entering and leaving a country or area in a given period

Push Factors

negative conditions in a person’s current location that encourage them to migrate

Pull Factors

positive conditions in a new location that attract migrants

Gentrification

the process of renovating and improving urban neighborhoods that often leads to rising rents and the displacement of lower-income residents

Diffusion of Responsibility

the tendency for individuals in a group to feel less personal responsibility to take action, especially in emergencies (bystander effect)