Psychological Research Methods and Learning and Cognition

These flashcards cover key terminology from qualitative research, experimental design, ethics, cognitive models, learning theories, and historical psychological studies found in the lecture notes.

Reflexivity

The process by which researchers critically reflect on how their own backgrounds, beliefs, and assumptions may influence the research process and findings.

Transferability

The extent to which findings from a qualitative study can be applied to other settings, people, or situations beyond the original context.

Credibility

Trustworthiness and truthfulness of findings in qualitative research, reflecting whether the data accurately represents the participant’s experience and meanings.

Member checking

Returning data to the participant to verify if they agree with the researcher's interpretation.

Triangulation

Using multiple sources of data, methods, or researchers to cross-check the findings in a study.

Prolonged engagement

Spending significant time with participants and engaging deeply to gain a fuller understanding of the context and more credible insights.

Thick description

Providing detailed accounts of research context, participants, and procedures to help judge applicability in other settings.

Ethics

The correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research.

Deception

Withholding information or falsely informing participants about the true aims of a study.

Debrief

A procedure where the true aims of the study are revealed and any reasons for deception are justified.

Right to withdraw

The ethical principle that a participant has the right to leave a study at any point.

Informed consent

Agreement to participate in a study after being told about its nature and rights, including privacy and the right to withdraw.

Demand characteristics

When participants act in a certain way due to the nature of the study, such as trying to guess the hypothesis.

Undue stress

A level of stress higher than what an individual would experience on a day-to-day basis.

Anonymity

The practice of keeping all information related to a participant's identity hidden.

Privacy

The right to control the flow of information about oneself.

Experiment

A research method used to determine if a cause-and-effect relationship exists between at least two variables.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor directly manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured after the manipulation of the independent variable.

Extraneous variable

Any factor other than the IV that can affect the DV, making it difficult to determine the cause of the results.

Participant variables

Characteristics of participants, such as intelligence or age, that can influence study results.

Situational variables

Features of the environment, such as noise, that can affect the dependent variable.

Confounding variables

Variables that systematically affect the IV, such as order effects in repeated measures designs.

1 tailed hypothesis

A statement predicting a clear direction for the relationship between variables.

2 tailed hypothesis

A statement predicting a difference between variables without specifying the direction.

Repeated measures design

An experimental design where each participant takes part in every condition of the study.

Independent samples design

An experimental design where different participants are allocated to two or more experimental conditions.

Matched pairs design

An experimental design where participants similar in key characteristics are paired, with one assigned to condition A and one to condition B.

Participant attrition

The rate at which participants drop out of a study.

Order effects

Changes in participant behavior due to the specific sequence in which experimental conditions are presented.

Fatigue effect

When participants in a study get tired or bored, potentially affecting their performance in subsequent conditions.

Practice effects

Improvement in task performance resulting from repeated experience with the task.

Counterbalancing

Varying the order in which conditions are tested to control for order effects.

Screw you effect

When participants act in the opposite way of what is expected to destroy the study's credibility.

Social desirability effect

When participants do things to look good and protect their self-esteem in a research setting.

Quasi experiment

A study where participants are not randomly allocated but grouped based on a pre-existing trait or behavior.

Natural experiment

A study resulting from a naturally occurring event with a pre-existing IV that is outside the researcher's control.

Field experiment

An experiment conducted in a natural setting rather than a laboratory.

Ecological validity

The extent to which findings can be generalized to real-life situations.

Internal validity

The extent to which an experiment accurately shows a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV without bias from extraneous variables.

Self-report

Data collection methods, such as questionnaires or interviews, where people report their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Focus group

A group interview setting where multiple participants share their views simultaneously.

Covert observation

Data collection where those being observed are unaware of the researcher's presence.

Overt observation

Data collection where those being observed are aware they are being watched.

Participant observation

An observation method where the researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

Event sampling

Tallying how many times a specific behavior occurs during an observation.

Time sampling

Recording observations at specific time intervals to look for consistency.

Bidirectional ambiguity

The uncertainty in correlational studies regarding which variable caused the change in the other, or if a third variable is involved.

Case study

An in-depth, often longitudinal study of an individual or small group, usually grounded in real-life contexts.

Data triangulation

Using more than one source or type of data in a study.

YAVIS

A person-focused sampling bias representing participants who are Young, Attractive, Verbal, Intelligent, and Social.

WEIRD

A population-focused sampling bias representing Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic societies.

Classical conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an automatic response.

Operant conditioning

A learning process where behaviors are shaped by consequences, specifically rewards or punishments.

Positive reinforcement

The presentation of a reward to encourage the continuation of a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

The removal of an aversive stimulus to encourage the continuation of a behavior.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

A theory suggesting that behavior can be learned by observing others, involving attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Vicarious reinforcement

Learning by observing whether a model's behavior is rewarded or punished.

Self-efficacy

One's belief in their own ability to succeed in accomplishing a specific task.

Schema theory

A cognitive theory that mental representations derived from prior knowledge help us understand and predict the world.

Assimilation

The process of adding new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of modifying existing schemas to fit new, incongruent information.

Dual Process Model

A model suggesting two ways of thinking: System One (automatic/intuitive) and System Two (slower/rational).

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to facilitate decision-making, often focus on one aspect of a complex problem.

Anchor bias

The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered when making decisions.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to interpret information in a way that affirms one's pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.

Multi-store Model (MSM)

A memory model proposing separate units: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Sensory register

A transient memory store that lasts less than $0.5s$ with very high capacity based on the five senses.

Short-term memory (STM) capacity

Assumed to be around $7 \text{ items} \times \frac{2}{2}$ or $7 \text{ items } \text{plus or minus } 2$.

Working Memory Model (WMM)

A model suggesting STM consists of components like the Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad, and Episodic Buffer.

Central Executive (CE)

The attention control system in the WMM that monitors and coordinates subordinate components.

Cognitive load

The total amount of mental effort used in working memory at any given time.

Transactive memory

A shared system for encoding, storing, and retrieving information, often including external sources like the internet (the Google effect).

Individualism vs. Collectivism

A cultural dimension comparing societies where people act independently (Individualism) to those emphasizing group loyalty (Collectivism).

Flashbulb memory

A vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memory of an emotionally significant and surprising event.

Localisation of function

The theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to alter its own structure or rearrange connections between neurons as a result of learning or experience.

Voxel-based morphometry (VBM)

A neuroimaging technique used to measure the density of grey matter in the brain.

Context reinstatement

A cognitive interview technique where the interviewee mentally recreates the environment and emotional state of an event to aid recall.