Human Development EXAM #2 Study Guide

Attachment

A positive emotional bond develops between a child and a special individual who provides pleasure, comfort, and safety. It is the most important aspect of infant socioemotional development.

Lorenzo: Imprinting

The earliest animal research in ethology suggests that attachment is based on biologically determined factors. Attachment = offspring survival.

Harry Harlow

Harlow's research showed that monkeys preferred the terry-cloth, soft “mother” over the wire monkey that provided food. Secure base = child seeks comfort during times of fear (activator) and uses it to regulate emotions (terminator).

John Bowlby

Applied findings of Harry Harlow (rhesus monkeys) to human infants. Attachment behaviors are innate survival instincts to ensure protection. Looked at effect of maternal deprivation on mental illness in children. Children need continuous relationship with permanent caretaker.

Attachment Behavioral System

(Infant coos, smiles, grasps)(Sympathetic response from caregiver)(Infant establishes sense of security)(Adult cuddles, soothes, smiles) A pattern of mutual regulation between infant and caregiver. Internal Working Model: over time, the infant forms a mental representation to anticipate the nature of relationships.

Bowlby’s Attachment Stages

1: Pre-Attachment (0-6 weeks) Signals bring infant close to others.

2: Attachment in the Making (6 weeks - 6 months) Responds differently to caregiver.

3: Clear-cut attachment (6 months - 2 years) Develops stranger / Separation anxiety

4: Reciprocal relationship (2 years +) Responds to caregivers’ feelings/needs

Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

(Parent & child alone in room) (Child explores room) (Stranger enters room, talks to parent, approaches child) (Parent quietly leaves the room. Stranger interacts with child) (Reunion: Parent returns

& comforts child)

Observed:

• Amount of exploration

• Separation anxiety

• Stranger anxiety

• Reunion behavior with caregiver

Attachment Patterns

Secure 66%- Secure base for exploring, recovers quickly at reunion.

Insecure: Avoidant 15%- Explores without concern, slight distress at separation, ignores at reunion.

Insecure: Resistant 10%- Little exploration, extreme distress at separation, seeks caregiver but agitated at reunion.

Insecure: Disorganized <10%- Inconsistent behavior, frightened, confused, no attachment at reunion.

Parenting and Attachment

Quality of Parenting:

Sensitive responsiveness —> secure attachment. Consistent across both parents.

(Caregiver Behaviors-Baby Attachment Pattern)

Sensitive-consistent (Secure)

Unavailable-rejecting (Avoidant)

Inconsistent-responses (Resistant)

Neglect-physical-abuse (Disorganized)

Early Attachment & Long-term Outcomes

Early attachment —> Internal working model for relationships

Securely attached infants —> more socially and emotionally competent in childhood.

Secure attachment is associated with positive outcomes in infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

Temperament

Consistent patterns of arousal and emotion

• Form the basis for personality development

• Fairly stable across the lifespan

Temperament - 9 Dimensions

1. (Quality of Mood) How friendly is infant’s response?

2. (Activity Level) How active is infant?

3. (Rhythmicity) How predictable is infant?

4. (Distractibility) How distracted is the infant?

5. (Attention Span & Persistence) How long does infant try? Does infant overcome obstacles?

6. (Approach or Withdrawal) Response to new experiences?

7. (Adaptability) How well does infant adapt to change?

8. (Threshold of Responsiveness) How intense does a situation need to be to elicit a response?

9. (Intensity of Reaction) How strong is the response? talking? laughing? crying?

3 Temperament Patterns

Easy (40%) Positive mood, regular schedule, Moderate reactions, adaptable, comfortable with unfamiliar situations.

Difficult (10%) Negative mood, Irregular routine, Intense reactions, Slow to adapt, Resist unfamiliar situations.

Slow-To-Warm-Up (15%) Low activity, Low intensity, Slow to adapt, Shy in new situations.

What shapes temperament?

(Heredity) : Genetic, inborn tendencies

(Environment) : Support or discouragement from parents and culture

(Innate tendencies can be) : Reinforced, Channeled, Frustrated

Goodness of Fit

Nature (Innate tendencies) ←→Nurture (Support or discouragement from parents & culture)

Match between child’s innate tendencies and the environment leads to better developmental outcomes.

Infant Emotional Expressions

Nonverbal Encoding: Nonverbal expression of emotions

• Born with the capacity to display basic emotions

• At birth: interest, stress, disgust

• At 1 month: joy, anger, surprise, fear, sadness

• Similar across the most diverse cultures

(Cultural Universal)

Social Referencing

• First appears around 8 - 9 months

• Intentional search for cues

• Aids in understanding others' behavior in context

In Early Childhood…

Emotional capacity involving self-awareness increases with brain maturation

• Move beyond egocentric view (false belief task)

• Slowly gain insight into what others may be thinking

• Increase in ability to understand the motives and reasons behind behavior of others

In Middle Childhood…

• Better understanding of emotions helps with emotional highs and lows. Control of emotions grows

• Empathy expands as children become more adept at genuinely experiencing the emotions of others

• Ability to hide emotions increases “Emotional Dissemblance.”

In Adolescence…

• Emotions tend to be among the most volatile during early adolescence

• Emotions are more negative and more extreme than they were in middle childhood

• Emotional response more transient and apt to be more quickly replaced

Self Concept in Adolescence

Describe self in multiple ways that often are contradictory

• Ideal Self: self one aspires to be

• Real Self: one’s actual self

Mismatch between ideal and real selves linked with poorer adjustment (depression, self-esteem, poor grades)

Adolescent Self-Esteem

Increasingly accurate in understanding self

Group Differences:

• Gender: Girls lower

• Race: African American, Latin American lower. Ethnic Identity

• Socioeconomic Status

Social Comparison in Adolescence

• Parents are not able to provide accepted social comparisons during this period

• Peers and peer groups provide opportunity to compare and evaluate opinions, abilities, and physical changes

Social Status

High Status: More close friends, engage more frequently in activities with peers, disclose more of themselves to others, involved more in extracurricular activities, well aware of their popularity, less lonely than rejected and neglected peers.

Low Status: Fewer friends, engage in social activities less frequently, have less contact with opposite gender, see themselves as less popular, more likely to feel lonely.

(Friendships show clear hierarchies of status. Status is the evaluation of a person by other relevant members of a group)

Social Status

Popular (mostly liked)——> High Status

Controversial (Liked by some, disliked by others)——> High Status

Rejected (Uniformly disliked)——> Low Status

Neglected ( Neither liked or disliked)——-> Low Status

(Children's friendships show clear hierarchies of status, Status is the evaluation of a person by other relevant members of a group)

Health Concerns: Depression

• Over 25% of teens report feeling depressed for two weeks or more

• About 3% of adolescents experience major depressive disorder

• A minority (35%) of teens received treatment

Depression: Risk Factors

• Genetics

• Environment

-Parenting behaviors (Learned helplessness)

-Peer rejection

-Lack of engagement (School, athletics, etc.)

• Group differences

-More girls than boys

-More Native American and (possibly) African American

Early Adulthood…

• Happiest memories = psychological needs rather than material needs satisfied

• Unhappiest memories = basic psychological needs left unfulfilled

Feelings of: Autonomy, Competence, Connectedness; Self-esteem

Basic Psychological Needs

Autonomy: Feeling a sense of independence and freedom to control your own life.

Competence: Feeling confident in your knowledge and abilities.

Connectedness: Feelings of connection with other humans.

Self-esteem: A generally positive or negative feeling of oneself.

Health Concerns: Stress

• Daily Hassles: small stresses that quickly accumulate to influence adults’ mood and ability to cope (chronic stress)

• Middle-aged adults experience more daily stress than adults of any other age

• Hardiness: ability to adapt (self-efficacy, autonomy, view challenges as growth)

Stress Coping

Coping Strategy/Description

(Defensive Coping) Avoidance, denial

(Social Support) Accessing help from others

(Problem-Centered) Changing the situation

(Emotion-Centered) Regulating emotions

Aging and Emotional Regulation

(Shift toward memory for positive materials in late adulthood)

• Ability to regulate emotions often improves across the adult life span

• Decreased functional connectivity with other brain regions involved with perceptual functions that inhibit emotional responses

Final Happiness Correlates

Physical and mental health <-> Financial Security <-> Autonomy: Independence and personal control over ones life

Self-Awareness

(Roots of self-awareness)

• Begin to grow around 12 months

• Influenced by cultural upbringing

(Research)

• Rouge test

• Awareness of self around 18 to 24 months

• Complicated task requests

• Awareness of abilities around 23-24 months

Self-concept

Preschooler self-concept

• Not “accurate”

• Overestimate abilities

• Culturally influenced

(individual / collective, social desirability)

Sex, Gender, and social Norms

Sex: biologically based and determined by genetics (Y chromosome

on 23rd pair) and indicated by primary sex characteristics

• Klinefelter: 1 in 500 – 1000

• Turner: 1 in 2500

Gender: socially based and determined by socialization and roles the individual adopts.

Sex Differences In Childhood

Physical:

• Boys tend to be more physically active

• Girls tend to be better at fine motor skills

• Post-puberty: males tend to be bigger,

stronger, and faster than females

Cognitive:

• Girls tend to have an advantage in verbal abilities

• Boys tend to have an advantage in tests of spatial intelligence

• Mixed results for math abilities

Sex Differences In Childhood

Social / Emotional:

• Girls tend to have an advantage in identifying emotions, emotional expression, and emotion regulation

• Boys exhibit more physical and verbal aggression; girls demonstrate more relational aggression

Gender Roles

All cultures prescribe gender roles:

• Some early differences (sleep, activity, fussing)

• Boys more irritable, no difference in crying

• Roles can differ greatly between cultures

Gender Stereotypes: broad, generalized judgments of the activities, attitudes, skills, and characteristics deemed appropriate for males or females in a given culture.

Gender Identity In Early Childhood

Expectations about gender-appropriate behavior are even more gender-stereotyped than those of adults.

• By age 2 years: Consistently label themselves and others as boys and girls

• By preschool years: Sense of gender is well established

(Less flexible during the preschool years than at any other point in the lifespan)

Gender In Childhood

Girls: Organized games and role playing, same sex playmate preference around 2.

Boys: More roughly and tumble play, same sex playmate preference around 3.

Self Concept In Middle childhood

Think about self in more complex ways

• Positive and Negative

Self-concept divided into personal and academic spheres

• Personal: physical appearance, peer relations, and physical ability

• Academic: interests and abilities

Self-esteem in Middle Childhood

Self-evaluation begins in middle childhood

• Comparisons to others

• Increasingly differentiated, higher in some areas than others

Defining Self-Esteem

(Three factors that strongly correlate with positive or negative view of oneself)

AUTONOMY: Sense of freedom / control

CONNECTEDNESS: Sense of belonging and acceptance

COMPETENCE: Sense of competence

CONSEQUENCES OF SELF ESTEEM

High self esteem

• More positive experiences

• Focus on successes

Low self esteem

• Can be painful and destructive

• More negative response

to failure

PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF PUBERTY

(Direct impact on behavior)

• Gender Intensification: young adolescents become increasingly sensitive to gender stereotypes, and behavior is likely to adhere to gender stereotypes

• Social pressures drive more gender-stereotypic behavior

SELF CONCEPT IN ADOLESCENCE

Adolescents

• More like adults physically and intellectually

• High societal pressures and reliance on friends and peers

• Very self conscious

• Mismatch between ideal and real selves linked with poorer adjustment

ADOLESCENT SELF-ESTEEM

(Increasingly accurate in understanding self)

Group Differences:

• Socioeconomic Status

• Gender

• Race

• Ethnic Identity

ETHNIC IDENTITY

(Ethnic identity) sense of membership to an ethnic group, including the attitudes, values, and culture associated with that group.

• Involves exploring one’s ethnicity and internalizing values from one’s ethnic group

• Positive sense of ethnic identity can reduce negative effects of racial discrimination

• Fostered by strong parent–child relationships

MARCIA'S IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

• Exploration: an intentional search to identify own values, interests, goals, etc.

• Commitment: a psychological investment in an ideology or course of action.

Crisis: adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives (exploration) and makes decisions about identity (commitment)

4 Identities

Identity Achievement: High Exploration, High Commitment

Identity Moratorium: High Exploration, Low Commitment

Identity Foreclosure: Low Exploration, High Commitment

Identity Diffusion: Low Exploration, Low Commitment

OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

(Identity Achievement associated with well-being and positive functioning)

• Moratorium linked with anxiety and confusion (not necessarily problematic if exploring with purpose)

• Identity Foreclosure linked with rigid and inflexible stances and lack of openness to new experiences

• Identity Diffusion linked with avoidant cognitive style, apathy, academic difficulties, time management problems, substance abuse

EMERGING ADULTHOOD

• Gradual transition from late teens to mid 20’smid-20s

• Fewer social expectations

• Diverse paths to adulthood

• Prolonged identity exploration

FIVE FEATURES OF EMERGING ADULTHOOD

1. Feeling “In Between”

2. Focused on Self

3. Identity Exploration

4. Instability

5. “Age of Possibilities”

SOCIAL COMPARISONS IN ADULTHOOD

Neugarten’s “Social Clock”

• Age-graded expectations for major life events

• “On time” vs. “Off time”

• Fosters self-confidence and social stability

GENDER ROLES IN ADULTHOOD

• Parental Imperative: the need for parents to adopt different roles in order to successfully raise children.

• Most hetero couples adopt more “traditional” gender roles after birth of a child.

• Gender roles soften for empty nesters.

EMERGING SEXUALITY

(Normal for children to have sexual feelings)

• Feelings are experienced and understood differently than adult sexuality

(Adrenarche: the maturation of adrenal glands)

• Stimulates hormones that begin puberty

• Marks transition in adolescent’s sexual desire

ADOLESCENTS AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

Percent of high school students who have had intercourse is at an all time low

• 1991: 51%

• 2019: 38%

• Younger high schoolers are having much less sex

• Two-thirds have had intercourse by age 19

• 25% reported having intercourse in last 3 months

SEXUAL INTERCOURSE

Important milestone for most adolescents

• Often preceded by different types of sexual intimacy

“Permissiveness with Affection”

• Historical: double standard for males and females

• Now: acceptable within a relationship

• Still: double standard without commitment

• Cultural and subcultural variation

STIs & TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Sexually Transmitted Infections: infections passed through sexual contact

• HPV is most common (40 – 50% U.S. of adults)

• 2020: All time high in STI rates

• 15 – 24-year-olds: 25% of sexually active population, but 50% of STI diagnoses

Rate of teenage pregnancy has declined

• Due to increased contraceptive use

• U.S.: highest rates among developed countries

• Lowest in states with comprehensive sex education

LGBTQ+ DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

(At least) 9.3% of adult Americans (25 million Americans)

• 25% of Gen Z

• 3% of Boomers

• 6 / 10 feel unsafe at school

• 8 / 10 verbally harassed

• 4 / 10 physically harassed

• 1 / 5 assaulted

LGBTQ+ DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

(At least) 9.3% of adult Americans (25 million Americans)

• 25% of Gen Z

• 3% of Boomers

• 3X as likely to use drugs, engage in unsafe sex

• 6X as likely to suffer serious depression

• 8X as likely to attempt suicide

LGBTQ+ DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES: COMING OUT

Stage Phase Characteristics

Middle Childhood- Feeling Different (Playing with Opposite Sex Drawn to “non-traditional” activities)

Adolescence- Confusion (May try dating opposite sex, May try “traditional activities”), especially without LGBT role models / social support.

Early Adulthood- Acceptance (Tell closest friends first, parents last Date same-sex / establish relationships)

(Parental Understanding: Most Powerful Predictor of Positive Adjustment)

SEXUAL ACTIVITY IN ADULTHOOD

Sexual activity is highest in young adulthood

• Frequency of sexual intercourse linked to emotional, sexual, and relationship satisfaction, as well as overall happiness

• Modest decline over time (physical changes)

SEXUAL ACTIVITY IN OLDER ADULTHOOD

(Adults remain interested and capable of sexual activity well into older adulthood)

• Frequency of sexual activity declines, sexual satisfaction remains unchanged

• Sexual activity is a correlate of health

• Those in good health report more sexual activity, those who are sexually active tend to live longer

Playing to Learn

(Play is critical to the overall development of young children)

• Practice social skills (cooperative play)

• Practice cognitive & motor skills

• Practice problem solving

Playing to Learn

(Play is critical to the overall development of young children)

Functional play (3-year-olds):

• simple, repetitive activities - with objects or repetitive muscular movements

Constructive play (4-year-olds):

• manipulate objects to produce or build something

Social Aspects of Play

Type of Play/Characteristics:

(Solitary) Play alone

(Onlooker) Watch each other play

(Parallel) Play in a similar way, without interaction

(Associative) Share or borrow toys or materials, but do not do the same thing

(Cooperative) Play with one another, take turns, play games, and create contests

Friendships

• Teach relationship skills such as emotional regulation, communication, and provide social support.

• Foster intellectual growth by providing opportunities to practice with peer-supported scaffolding.

• Later on, a focus on trust and loyalty offers social support and fulfills the need for connectedness.

Damon's Stages of Friendship

Stage 1 (age 4-7)

See friends as like themselves, Based on behavior, not personal traits

Stage 2 (age 8-10)

Consider other's personal qualities, Based on mutual trust

Stage 3 (age 11-15)

Mutual disclosure and exclusivity, Based on closeness and loyalty

Gender and Friendships

(Avoidance of other sex appears in childhood and becomes more pronounced in adolescence)

Boys

• Larger networks

• Based on status

• Challenges to status may result in outbursts

Girls

• Smaller networks

• More equal status

• Conflicts solved through compromise or avoidance

Friendships

Childhood: Learning social & intellectual skills

Adolescence: Highly influential reference groups

Adulthood: Social support Connectedness

Later Adulthood: Autonomy Connectedness Role flexibility

Choosing a Mate

United States: LOVE as a major factor

• In other times and cultures, love may be a secondary force

• Character, maturity, health, class status

• Gender differences

• Physical / Ambition

• Evolutionary?

• Social norming?

Children and Marital Satisfaction

Parental Imperative:

• Dramatic shift in spouse's roles

• Challenges to marital satisfaction

Successful coping:

• Continued focus on affection

• Treated challenges as solvable

• Consideration of each spouses’ individual life events

Divorce

(Half of children in the U.S. will live with both parents each of whom has been married only once)

Reaction to divorce:

• Age of child

• Circumstances of divorce

• Time passed since divorce

Psychological distress for 6 months to 2 years (for parents and children)

• Anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance

• Twice as likely to need counseling

• Impacts can be worse for high-conflict marriages

Single Parent Families

(About 25% of all children in the U.S. llive with only one parent at some point)

Numbers are higher for minority children

• 60% of African American, 35% of Latin American

• Correlated factors: low-SES, less education, etc.

Impact of living in a single-parent family is not necessarily negative or positive

• Dependent upon variety of factors: SES, parent-child time, family stress, etc.

Blended Families

Remarried couples with at least one stepchild

40% of new marriages are re-marriages

17% of U.S. children live in blended families

May be challenging for children

• Role ambiguity

Successful families foster:

• Sense of togetherness

• Child self-esteem

Empty Nest-ers

(Parents whose children have left home)

• Short-term feelings of sadness and loss

• Long-term outcomes:

• Higher marital satisfaction

• Lower stress / depression

• Changing roles (parental / gender)