AP US Government Key Concepts: Rights, Democracy, and Federalism

Natural rights

Rights that people are born with that cannot be taken away by government, including life, liberty, and property (Locke)

Popular sovereignty

The idea that the government's authority comes from the people

Republicanism

A system where citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf

Social contract

An agreement where people give up some freedoms in exchange for government protection of their rights

Declaration of Independence

1776 document declaring the colonies' separation from Britain, grounded in natural rights theory

Philadelphia Convention

1787 meeting where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution

Participatory democracy

A model where citizens are broadly and actively involved in political decision-making

Pluralist democracy

A model where many groups compete for power and influence in government

Elite democracy

A model where a small, wealthy, or educated group holds most political power

Shays's Rebellion

1786-87 uprising by Massachusetts farmers that revealed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

Agreement creating a bicameral Congress with proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate

Electoral College

The body of electors chosen by states to formally elect the President and Vice President

Three-Fifths Compromise

Agreement to count enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes

Importation (slavery) compromise

Agreement to prevent Congress from banning the slave trade until 1808

Separation of powers

The division of government authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches

Checks and balances

A system where each branch of government can limit the powers of the other branches

Federalism

A system that divides power between a national government and state governments

Exclusive powers

Powers held only by the federal government (e.g., coining money, declaring war)

Implied powers

Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but suggested by the Necessary and Proper Clause

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by both federal and state governments (e.g., taxing, building roads)

Categorical grants

Federal money given to states for a specific purpose with strings attached

Block grants

Federal money given to states with fewer restrictions on how it's spent

Mandates (unfunded)

Federal requirements imposed on states without providing funding to carry them out

Revenue sharing

Federal money distributed to states with virtually no restrictions

Commerce clause

Constitutional clause giving Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution, primarily in Article I Section 8

Implied powers

Powers Congress has beyond those listed, justified by the Necessary and Proper Clause

Necessary and proper clause

Constitutional clause allowing Congress to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers; also called the "Elastic Clause"

Checks and balances

System allowing each branch to limit the powers of the others

Bicameralism

The division of Congress into two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate

Speaker of the House

The leader of the House of Representatives, elected by House members

President of the Senate

The Vice President of the United States, who presides over the Senate and casts tie-breaking votes

Senate Majority Leader

The chief spokesperson and legislative strategist for the majority party in the Senate

Filibuster

A Senate tactic where a member speaks indefinitely to delay or block a vote on legislation

Cloture

A Senate procedure requiring 60 votes to end a filibuster and force a vote

Holds

A Senate procedure allowing a member to delay a floor vote on a bill or nomination

Unanimous Consent

A Senate agreement that allows business to proceed without a formal vote, requiring no objections

Rules Committee

A powerful House committee that determines the rules for debating and amending legislation

Committee of the Whole

A procedural device where the full House meets as one large committee to debate legislation more efficiently

Discharge petitions

A House procedure allowing a majority of members to force a bill out of committee to the floor

Discretionary spending

Federal spending that Congress must approve annually through the appropriations process

Mandatory spending

Federal spending required by existing law, such as entitlement programs

Entitlement programs

Government programs that provide benefits to all eligible individuals (e.g., Social Security, Medicare)

Budget deficit

When government spending exceeds tax revenues in a given year

Pork barrel legislation

Spending bills that direct funds to specific local projects, often to benefit a member's district

Logrolling

The practice of trading votes between legislators to pass each other's preferred bills

Oversight

Congress's power to monitor and review the activities of the executive branch

Constituency

The people whom an elected official represents

Partisanship

Strong loyalty to one's political party, often at the expense of compromise

Bipartisan

Involving cooperation between members of both major political parties

Gridlock

A situation where government is unable to act or pass legislation due to political disagreement

Lame Duck

An elected official who is still in office after losing an election or being term-limited

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral district lines to favor one party or group over another

Reapportionment

The redistribution of House seats among states after each census based on population changes

Redistricting

The process of redrawing district boundaries following reapportionment

Divided government

When one party controls the presidency and the other controls one or both chambers of Congress

Trustee

A legislator who votes based on their own judgment of what is best, regardless of constituents' wishes

Delegate

A legislator who votes according to the direct wishes of their constituents

Politico

A legislator who acts as a trustee on some issues and a delegate on others depending on the situation

Veto (including pocket veto)

The president's power to reject legislation; a pocket veto occurs when the president takes no action on a bill within 10 days while Congress is adjourned

Commander in Chief

The president's constitutional role as head of the U.S. armed forces

Executive order

A directive issued by the president that carries the force of law without congressional approval

Executive Agreement

An agreement between the president and a foreign government that does not require Senate ratification

Signing statements

Written remarks issued by the president when signing a bill, sometimes indicating how the law will be interpreted or enforced

Nomination and confirmation

The process by which the president nominates and the Senate confirms federal judges and executive officials

Treaty negotiation and ratification

The president negotiates treaties with foreign nations; the Senate must ratify them with a two-thirds vote

22nd Amendment

Constitutional amendment limiting the president to two terms in office

Bully pulpit

The president's use of the office's visibility and prestige to influence public opinion and push a policy agenda

Judicial review

The power of the courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison)

Precedent/stare decisis

The legal principle that courts should follow past rulings when deciding similar cases

Judicial activism

The philosophy that courts should interpret the Constitution broadly and use rulings to promote social change

Judicial restraint

The philosophy that courts should defer to elected branches and avoid overturning laws unless clearly unconstitutional

Patronage

The practice of rewarding political supporters with government jobs or contracts

Civil liberties

Individual freedoms protected from government interference, primarily found in the Bill of Rights

Civil rights

The rights of citizens to receive equal treatment and be free from discrimination

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, protecting individual freedoms from federal government overreach

Judicial review

The power of courts to strike down laws that violate the Constitution

Selective incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied most Bill of Rights protections to the states through the 14th Amendment

Establishment clause

First Amendment clause prohibiting the government from establishing an official religion

Free exercise clause

First Amendment clause protecting the right of individuals to practice their religion freely

Symbolic speech

Nonverbal expression protected under the First Amendment (e.g., flag burning, armband wearing)

Defamatory speech (libel and slander)

False statements that damage a person's reputation; libel is written, slander is spoken — not protected by the First Amendment

"Clear and present danger"

Standard from Schenck v. U.S. (1919) allowing the government to limit speech that poses an immediate threat to public safety

Due process clause

14th Amendment clause prohibiting states from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without fair legal procedures

Miranda Rights

Rights that must be read to a suspect upon arrest, including the right to remain silent and to an attorney (Miranda v. Arizona)

Patriot Act

2001 law expanding government surveillance powers in the name of national security following 9/11

Exclusionary rule

Legal rule preventing evidence obtained illegally from being used in court (Mapp v. Ohio)

Equal protection clause

14th Amendment clause requiring states to treat all persons equally under the law

National Organization for Women

A leading feminist advocacy group founded in 1966 to advance gender equality

Civil Rights Act 1964

Landmark legislation prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin

Voting Rights Act 1965

Law banning discriminatory voting practices and providing federal oversight of elections in states with histories of discrimination

Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972

Federal law prohibiting sex-based discrimination in any educational program receiving federal funding

"Separate but equal"

The doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that allowed racial segregation, later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Individualism

The belief that personal freedom and self-reliance are core American values

Free Enterprise

The economic system in which private businesses operate with minimal government interference

Rule of Law

The principle that all people, including government officials, are subject to the law equally

Limited Government

The principle that government power should be restricted to protect individual freedoms

Equality of Opportunity

The belief that every person should have a fair chance to succeed, regardless of background

Political ideology

A consistent set of beliefs about the role of government and public policy

Demographics

Statistical characteristics of a population (e.g., age, race, income, education)