Psychology: Understanding Learning and Memory

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering behavioral and social-cognitive learning approaches, the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model, brain structures, memory pathologies like Alzheimer's, and mnemonic techniques.

Learning

The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience.

Behaviourist approaches to learning

Theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment and focus on behaviours that can be directly observed and recorded.

Classical conditioning

A process of learning through the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned response.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

The stimulus that produces no significant response prior to conditioning.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

The stimulus that produces an unconscious response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A naturally occurring behaviour in response to a stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus (originally the neutral stimulus) that produces a conditioned response after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

The response that occurs involuntarily after the conditioned stimulus is presented.

During conditioning

The second stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus is presented first and remains until the unconditioned stimulus is presented within half a second ($0.5\,s$).

Operant conditioning

A three-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, behaviour, and consequence, whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur.

Antecedent

The stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular behaviour in operant conditioning.

Behaviour (Operant Conditioning)

The voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent.

Consequence

The outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

Positive reinforcement

The addition of a desirable stimulus, which increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

Negative reinforcement

The removal of an undesirable stimulus, which increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

Positive punishment

The addition of an undesirable stimulus, which decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

Negative punishment

Also known as response cost; the removal of a desirable stimulus, which decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

Social-cognitive approaches to learning

Theories that propose learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes such as concentration, motivation, memory, and decision-making.

Observational learning

A process of learning that involves watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequence of that behaviour.

Model (Observational Learning)

The individual who is performing the behaviour that is being observed.

Attention

The first stage of observational learning in which individuals actively focus on the model's behaviour and its consequences.

Retention

The second stage of observational learning in which individuals create a mental representation to store the model's demonstrated behaviour in memory.

Reproduction

The third stage of observational learning in which the individual must have the physical and mental capabilities to replicate the behaviour.

Motivation

The fourth stage of observational learning in which the individual must want (intrinsic or extrinsic) to reproduce the observed behaviour.

Reinforcement (Observational Learning)

The fifth stage of observational learning in which the individual receives a consequence that makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future.

Systems of knowledge

In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning, this refers to knowledge and skills based on interconnected social, physical, and spiritual understandings that inform survival and identity.

Country

Traditional lands of a particular language or cultural group, including geographical boundaries and spiritual, emotional, and intellectual connections.

Multimodal

An approach using a variety of methods, as seen in the 8 ways of Aboriginal learning framework involving elements like story-sharing, learning maps, and non-verbal communication.

Memory

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information that has been previously encountered.

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory

A model outlining three separate stores (sensory, short-term, and long-term) that interact through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Sensory memory

A store that briefly holds raw sensory information ($0.2$ to $4\,s$) as an exact replica before it is attended to.

Iconic memory

A subtype of sensory memory for visual information with a duration of $0.2$ to $0.4\,s$.

Echoic memory

A subtype of sensory memory for auditory information with a duration of $3$ to $4\,s$.

Short-term memory (STM)

A memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information ($7 \pm 2$ items) for a duration of $18$ to $30\,s$ while it is consciously being manipulated.

Long-term memory (LTM)

A store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a useable form that can be manipulated and stored in the brain.

Retrieval

The process of accessing information stored in long-term memory and bringing it into conscious awareness in short-term memory.

Explicit memory

Also known as declarative memory; a type of long-term memory that is consciously retrieved and can be verbally stated.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory consisting of general knowledge or facts.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory consisting of personal experiences or events.

Implicit memory

A type of long-term memory that is unconsciously retrieved and involves involuntary responses.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory involving 'knowing how' to carry out tasks facilitated by motor skills.

Classically conditioned memory

A type of implicit memory involving an involuntary response, such as fear, to a stimulus associated with an emotionally-arousing experience.

Hippocampus

A brain structure primarily involved in encoding explicit memories.

Amygdala

A brain structure primarily involved in encoding the emotional components of memories, often strengthening those with strong fear or excitement.

Neocortex

A brain structure that stores explicit (episodic and semantic) memories, often in specific lobes depending on the content.

Basal ganglia

A group of brain structures involved in encoding and storing implicit memories related to habit formation and reward pathways.

Cerebellum

A brain structure that encodes and stores implicit memories related to simple reflexes and procedural sequences of precise movements.

Autobiographical events

Personally lived experiences that involve an overlap of episodic and semantic memory components.

Possible imagined futures

Hypothetical experiences and situations created in the mind by drawing on elements of past memories.

Alzheimer's disease

A neurodegenerative disease involving the progressive loss of neurons, characterized by memory decline and neurological lesions such as amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.

Amyloid plaques

Insoluble protein fragments (beta-amyloid) that accumulate between neurons, inhibiting communication.

Neurofibrillary tangles

Insoluble accumulations of tau protein within neurons that inhibit transportation of substances and kill the cell.

Aphantasia

A phenomenon where individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery (visual representations of sensory information).

Mnemonics

Devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information by linking new data to existing long-term memories.

Acronym

A mnemonic device where the first letters of items form a pronounceable word.

Acrostic

A mnemonic device where the first letters of items create a phrase, rhyme, or poem.

Method of loci

Also known as a memory palace; a mnemonic that associates mental images of items with specific locations along a familiar route.

Sung narratives

Stories sharing cultural and survival information through the use of singing, harmony, and rhythm in oral traditions.

Songlines

Multimodal performances conducted while traveling through Country that link important sites and record ecological and spiritual journeys.