Psychology: Understanding Learning and Memory

Learning and Classical Conditioning

  • Learning Definition: Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience. It is a fundamental process that allows individuals to adapt to their environment.

  • Behaviourist Approaches to Learning: These are theories that propose learning occurs through interacting with the external environment. These approaches focus exclusively on behaviours that can be directly observed and recorded, often treating the internal mental state as a "black box."

  • Classical Conditioning: One of the most historically significant behaviourist approaches. It is a process of learning through the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned response. Learning occurs involuntarily, meaning the subject makes no conscious effort.

  • Ivan Pavlov's Research: Conducted in the 1890s on dogs, Pavlov famously conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell. This example serves as the foundation for the three-phase process.

  • The Three-Phase Process of Classical Conditioning:

    • Phase 1: Before Conditioning:

      • Neutral Stimulus (NS): The stimulus that produces no significant response prior to conditioning (e.g., the sound of a bell).

      • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The stimulus that produces an unconscious, automatic response (e.g., the presentation of food).

      • Unconditioned Response (UCR): A naturally occurring behaviour in response to a stimulus (e.g., salivation due to food).

      • At this stage, the NS results in no response, while the UCS results in the UCR.

    • Phase 2: During Conditioning:

      • The NS is repeatedly paired with the UCS.

      • Timing Requirement: The NS must be presented first and remain until the UCS is presented within half a second (0.5 s0.5\,s).

      • This phase produces the UCR. In Pavlov's case, the bell (NS) and food (UCS) lead to salivation (UCR).

    • Phase 3: After Conditioning:

      • The NS becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The stimulus (originally the NS) that produces a conditioned response after being repeatedly paired with the UCS (e.g., the sound of the bell alone).

      • Conditioned Response (CR): The response that occurs involuntarily after the CS is presented (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

  • Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner, 1920):

    • Demonstrated that emotional responses (fear) could be classically conditioned in humans.

    • NS: White rat.

    • UCS: Loud noise (hammer hitting a steel bar).

    • UCR: Crying/fear response.

    • CS: White rat.

    • CR: Crying/fear response.

    • Stimulus Generalisation: The subject elicits the same CR to similar objects. Little Albert showed fear toward a rabbit, a seal fur coat, cotton wool, and a Santa Claus mask.

    • Stimulus Discrimination: The subject learns to distinguish the CS from other related stimuli. Little Albert did not show fear when presented with a dog.

    • Extinction: Occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, eventually weakening the association until the CS no longer produces the CR.

    • Spontaneous Recovery: The return of a weakened CR after extinction has occurred and a rest period has passed.

  • Synaptic Plasticity Connection: Classical conditioning is physically represented by changes in the brain. During conditioning, the repeated pairing of the NS and UCS can lead to long-term potentiation (LTP), strengthening neural pathways.

Operant Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning Definition: A three-phase learning process involving an antecedent, behaviour, and consequence (the "ABCs"), whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur.

  • History: Developed by B.F. Skinner in the 1930s using the "Skinner box" (operant chamber). He found that environmental consequences influence whether a behaviour is repeated. This is a voluntary (active) process where the learner consciously changes or maintains behaviour.

  • The Three Phases of Operant Conditioning (ABC):

    • Antecedent (A): The stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular behaviour (e.g., an owner saying "sit").

    • Behaviour (B): The voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent (e.g., the dog sitting).

    • Consequence (C): The outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again (e.g., receiving a treat).

  • Types of Consequences:

    • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

      • Positive Reinforcement: The addition of a desirable stimulus (e.g., getting a high mark for studying).

      • Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an undesirable stimulus (e.g., taking an aspirin to remove a headache, or running to alleviate stress).

    • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

      • Positive Punishment: The addition of an undesirable stimulus (e.g., being criticised by a friend for being late).

      • Negative Punishment (Response Cost): The removal of a desirable stimulus (e.g., being banned from a party due to bad behaviour).

  • Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning:

    • Similarities: Both are behaviourist approaches, both follow a three-phase process, and both require several trials for learning to occur.

    • Differences:

      • Nature of Behaviour: Operant is voluntary (Somatic Nervous System); Classical is involuntary (Autonomic Nervous System).

      • Role of Learner: Operant learners are active; Classical learners are passive.

      • Consequences: Operant relies on consequences; Classical relies on pairing stimuli prior to the response.

Social-Cognitive Approaches: Observational Learning

  • Observational Learning Definition: Also known as social learning, vicarious conditioning, or modelling. It involves watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequences.

  • Albert Bandura's Research: Bandura's Bobo doll experiments (1960s) showed that children imitate aggressive behaviour after watching an adult model act violently. This shifted focus toward cognitive processes (Social-Cognitive Theory).

  • The Five Stages of Observational Learning (ARRMR):

    1. Attention: The learner must actively focus on the model's behaviour and consequences. Factors increasing attention: model is liked, high status, similar to the learner, or familiar.

    2. Retention: The learner creates a mental representation to remember the demonstrated behaviour. The information is stored in long-term memory.

    3. Reproduction: The learner must have the physical and mental capabilities to replicate the behaviour. This is the stage most often not achieved (e.g., wanting to play professional sports but lacking physical skill).

    4. Motivation: The learner must desire to perform the behaviour.

      • Intrinsic Motivation: Internal (e.g., pride).

      • Extrinsic Motivation: External (e.g., praise).

    5. Reinforcement: The learner receives a positive consequence, increasing the likelihood of future repetition.

      • Self-reinforcement: Internal feeling (e.g., feeling proud).

      • External reinforcement: External award.

      • Vicarious reinforcement: Observing another person being reinforced for the behaviour.

  • Timing of Stages: The model performs the behaviour first. The learner must complete Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation before performing the behaviour. Reinforcement occurs after the learner performs it.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Approaches to Learning

  • Holistic Learning Systems: Learning for First Nations peoples is situating the learner within a multimodal system of knowledge patterned on Country. It is embedded in relationships and highly immersive (seeing, hearing, feeling, doing).

  • Systems of Knowledge: Knowledge is based on interconnected social, physical, and spiritual understandings.

    • Relevant for Survival: Information involves vital skills like hunting or navigating land.

    • Interconnected: Learning about a kangaroo involves learning about its habits, plants, and predators simultaneously.

    • Patterned on Country: Knowledge is tied to traditional lands (Country). Country is a totality of emotive, physical, and spiritual connections.

    • Separation of Business: Reflects specific sacred roles like 'men’s business' and 'women’s business.'

  • The 8 Ways of Aboriginal Learning Framework (Yunkaporta, 2010):

    1. Story-sharing: Learning through narrative.

    2. Learning maps: Planning and visualising processes (e.g., mind maps).

    3. Non-verbal: Sharing knowledge through dance, art, and observation (e.g., traditional animal dances).

    4. Symbols and images: Learning through metaphors.

    5. Land links: Linking content to geographical landmarks (e.g., studying plants in nature rather than a textbook).

    6. Non-linear: Taking knowledge from different viewpoints and thinking "outside the square."

    7. Deconstruct/Reconstruct: Breaking a concept from whole to parts, then applying it (Watch then do).

    8. Community links: Connecting learning to local values and sharing knowledge to meet community needs.

  • Learning Embedded in Relationships:

    • Learning is relational; it starts with the trust between teacher (Elders, Aunties, Uncles) and learner.

    • It is family-based and intergenerational, maintaining cultural continuity.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory

  • Memory Definition: The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information previously encountered.

  • The Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968): Views memory as three distinct stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

  • Sensory Memory:

    • Function: Entry point for raw, unencoded information from the environment.

    • Capacity: Unlimited.

    • Duration: Very brief, generally 0.20.2 to 4 s4\,s.

    • Subtypes:

      • Iconic Memory (Visual): 0.20.2 to 0.4 s0.4\,s.

      • Echoic Memory (Auditory): 33 to 4 s4\,s .

      • Haptic Memory (Touch): Less than 2 s2\,s.

    • Information is lost if not attended to.

  • Short-Term Memory (STM):

    • Function: "Working memory" that holds information currently being worked on.

    • Capacity: 7±27 \pm 2 items (range: 55 to 99).

    • Duration: 1818 to 30 s30\,s. Starts fading after approx 1818 to 20 s20\,s.

    • Processes:

      • Rehearsal: Consciously repeating information (Maintenance) or linking it to old info (Elaborative).

      • Chunking: Grouping bits of info to increase capacity.

    • Information is lost via displacement (pushed out) or decay (fading over time).

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM):

    • Function: Permanent storage for an unlimited amount of information.

    • Capacity: Potentially unlimited.

    • Duration: Relatively permanent (potentially forever).

    • Process Definitions:

      • Encoding: Converting info into a usable form for the brain.

      • Storage: Retention of information over time.

      • Retrieval: Accessing stored info and bringing it back to STM.

  • Explanatory Power:

    • Strengths: Explains distinct stores and allows for understanding of amnesia patients.

    • Limitations: Considered oversimplified; STM is likely more complex than a single store. It ignores factors like motivation.

Brain Structures and Long-Term Memory Types

  • Explicit Memory (Declarative): Consciously retrieved memories that can be stated/declared.

    • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., 3×3=93 \times 3 = 9; number of states in Australia).

    • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences or events (e.g., getting a driver's licence).

  • Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Unconsciously retrieved memories.

    • Procedural Memory: Motor skills and actions (e.g., tying shoelaces; riding a bike).

    • Classically Conditioned Memory: Involuntary responses like fear or habits resulting from triggers.

  • Role of Key Brain Structures:

    • Hippocampus: Primarily involved in encoding explicit memories. Damage prevents new LTM formation (Anterograde Amnesia).

    • Amygdala: Encodes the emotional components of memory (fear centre). Activates when adrenaline/noradrenaline are released during high-arousal events to signal the hippocampus to strengthen explicit encoding.

    • Neocortex: Stores explicit memories. Memories are stored in locations relevant to where they were processed (e.g., auditory cortex for sounds). Main lobes involved: frontal and temporal.

    • Basal Ganglia: Encodes and stores implicit memories related to habit formation, reward patterns, and procedural sequences.

    • Cerebellum: Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories (fine motor movements, balance) and simple classically conditioned reflexes.

Episodic and Semantic Memory: Remembering and Imagining

  • Retrieving Autobiographical Events:

    • Autobiographical events are personally lived experiences involving an overlap of semantic (dates/locations) and episodic (feelings/details) memory.

    • Reconstruction: Piecing together memory to create a mental representation. It is often inaccurate (Elizabeth Loftus's research on misleading information).

  • Constructing Possible Imagined Futures:

    • The ability to create hypothetical experiences in the mind.

    • Draws on past episodic and semantic memories to piece together a new scenario.

    • Mental simulation helps anticipate consequences and guide future behaviour.

Neurodegenerative Diseases and Mental Imagery

  • Alzheimer's Disease:

    • A neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive neuron loss and memory decline.

    • Lesions Identified (Post-mortem):

      • Amyloid Plaques: Extracellular fragments of beta-amyloid protein that inhibit communication between neurons.

      • Neurofibrillary Tangles: Intracellular accumulation of tau protein that kills the neuron by inhibiting substance transport.

    • Impact: Specifically damages the hippocampus first, disrupting explicit memory retrieval and the ability to imagine futures. Implicit memories (e.g., playing piano) may remain intact longer.

  • Aphantasia:

    • The inability to generate visual mental imagery. Individuals cannot "see" things in their mind's eye.

    • Impact: These individuals struggle to retrieve autobiographical events and imagine futures because they cannot generate vivid visual representations. They rely on non-visual semantic facts for navigation and planning.

Mnemonics: Written and Oral Traditions

  • Written Traditions (Acronyms, Acrostics, Method of Loci):

    • Acronym: Pronounceable word formed from the first letters of items (e.g., BODMAS, FAST).

    • Acrostic: Phrase or poem where first letters of words act as cues (e.g., "Never Eat Soggy Weet-bix").

    • Method of Loci (Memory Palace): Associating items with specific physical locations in a well-known route (e.g., placing grocery items in specific spots in your bedroom).

  • Oral Traditions (Sung Narratives and Songlines):

    • Sung Narratives: Stories sharing cultural, ecological, and survival info through singing and rhythm. Song makes transfer more memorable.

    • Songlines: Multimodal performances linking songs to physical paths traveled through Country. They act as sophisticated maps. Walking the landscape (physically or mentally) triggers retrieval of information linked to that location.

    • Songlines are more advanced than the Method of Loci as they incorporate dance, song, and multiple layers of communal knowledge.