Nonprobability Sampling, Ethnography, and Qualitative Research Methods in Social Sciences

Nonprobability sampling

A sampling approach where units *do not have an equal/known chance of selection, so findings can't be statistically generalized* to the full population.

Quota sampling

A nonprobability method where the researcher *fills preset categories (e.g., gender/age) without random selection*.

Purposive (judgment) sampling

A nonprobability method where the researcher *intentionally selects participants because they fit specific criteria* relevant to the study.

Convenience sampling

A nonprobability method that samples *whoever is easiest to access* ("whoever is available").

Snowball (chain-referral) sampling

A nonprobability method that starts with a few participants who *refer the researcher to other participants*.

Respondent-driven sampling (RDS)

A structured form of snowball sampling where participants *recruit others (often with incentives)* to reduce some bias compared to typical snowballing.

Key informant

A participant with *deep, trusted, insider knowledge* who can explain cultural practices and often help access others.

Specialized informant

A participant with *expertise in a specific domain/topic* (specialized knowledge, not necessarily broad community knowledge).

Focus group

A *planned group discussion on a specific topic where a moderator guides conversation and researchers learn from group interaction* (not just individual answers).

Segmentation

Organizing focus groups by characteristics (e.g., *age/gender/status/role*) to improve comfort and reduce power differences.

Recruitment methods (focus groups)

Ways to find participants, including *researcher-driven recruitment, recruitment through key informants, and spontaneous* recruitment from naturally forming groups.

Research proposal

A document that lays out the *plan + justification for a study, showing it is significant, feasible, and ethical*.

Literature review

A section that *synthesizes existing research, identifies gaps, and shows how your project fits into and contributes* to the field.

Primary methods

Data collection methods where you gather *original data* (e.g., participant observation, interviews, focus groups, surveys).

Secondary methods

Methods using *existing sources/data* (e.g., archives, books, journals, media, documents).

Ethnography

A qualitative approach based on *immersion and participant observation to produce context-rich ("thick") description* of lived experience.

Thick description

Detailed writing/analysis that explains *meaning in context*, not just what happened.

Virtual world (for ethnography)

An online environment that is *world-like, multi-user, persistent, and embodied* (people participate through avatars).

Apprenticeship as method

An ethnographic method where the researcher becomes a *novice learner in a community of practice to study how embodied cultural knowledge is taught and learned*.

Enculturation

The process of *becoming culturally competent* through learning, correction, discipline, and social participation.

Timelining

A graphic elicitation method where participants *create a timeline/graph over time (often with photos/objects/events) to elicit rich temporal narratives* and reflection.

Graphic elicitation

Using *drawings/diagrams/visual graphics* to prompt discussion and uncover experiences that may be hard to express in words alone.

Bernard (2011) - Nonprobability Sampling

Explains sampling methods where participants are selected intentionally or through access/networks rather than randomly, emphasizing that these samples allow deep understanding but not statistical generalization.

Peek & Fothergill (2009) - Using _____Groups

Examines how ___groups function as an exploratory qualitative method that uses group interaction to generate rich, supportive, and sometimes empowering data, especially in research with marginalized or trauma-affected populations.

Jeffery & Konopinski - Planning Your Research Project

Outlines how to design a feasible, ethical research proposal by developing focused research questions, conducting a literature review, selecting appropriate methods, and planning practical logistics like time, access, and budget.

Boellstorff et al. - Ethnography and Virtual Worlds

Argues that ____are legitimate cultural sites and that ethnography in online environments follows the same core principles as traditional ethnography: immersion, participant observation, thick description, and ethical responsibility.

Downey et al. (2015) - Apprenticeship as Method

Proposes _____as an ethnographic method in which researchers become novice learners in embodied practices to understand how cultural knowledge is transmitted through discipline, hierarchy, and bodily training.

Kelly - Getting Started: The Search for _____Questions

Explains how to develop strong anthropological research questions by narrowing broad themes into manageable, feasible, and context-specific inquiries that connect small field sites to larger social issues.

Sheridan et al. (2011) - Timelining: Visualizing Experience

Introduces __as a graphic elicitation method where participants create visual timelines to stimulate reflection and narrative, showing how visualizing experience over time deepens storytelling and insight.