Paper 3, Topic 1 The loss of the American colonies, 1770–83

Why did tensions exist between Britain and the American colonies before 1770?

The colonies had developed a distinct identity:

• Most colonists were agricultural producers.

• The majority of colonists were Protestant

• White men were more likely to own land than in Britain.

• Colonists had significant political experience through elected colonial assemblies.

• Between 50% and 80% of adult white males could vote in some colonies compared to 1 in ten men in Britain.

Many colonists saw themselves as possessing traditional English liberties and believed Parliament should not interfere in local affairs.

Why did Britain begin taxing the colonies after 1763?

Following victory in the Seven Years' War:

• Britain gained Canada and French territory east of the Mississippi.

• The Empire became larger and more expensive to defend.

• Britain wanted a permanent force of 10,000 troops in North America.

Financial pressures were severe:

• Government income = approximately £8 million.

• Annual interest repayments on national debt = £4.4 million.

Britain therefore expected the colonies to contribute towards defence costs.

What was the significance of the Navigation Acts?

The Navigation Acts reflected Britain's mercantilist beliefs.

They:

• Restricted colonial trade.

• Ensured colonies traded primarily through Britain.

• Allowed Britain to profit from imperial commerce.

After 1763 Britain began enforcing them more strictly, creating resentment among colonists.

Why was the Stamp Act controversial (1765)?

The Stamp Act (1765):

Applied taxes to:

• Newspapers

• Legal documents

• Licences

• Playing cards

• Printed materials

Colonists opposed it because:

• It was a direct tax - argued by colonials e.g Benjamin Franklin.

• Colonial assemblies had not approved it.

• It violated the principle of: “No taxation without representation”

What was the Quartering Act and why was it unpopular?

The Quartering Act (1765) required colonial assemblies to:

• House British troops.

• Provide food and supplies.

• Pay associated costs.

Colonists viewed this as:

• An unwanted burden.

• Further evidence of British interference.

• New York assembly refused compliance and was suspended

What were the Townshend Duties (1767)?

Placed customs duties on imports such as:

• Tea

• Glass

• Wine

Purpose:

• Raise revenue.

• Assert parliamentary authority.

Colonists argued these taxes were unconstitutional because they lacked representation in Parliament.

How did colonists react to the Townshend Duties?

• Boycotts.

• Smuggling.

• Protests.

• Violence against tax officials e.g Agents of the Crown would be tarred and feathered

• Massachusetts Assembly condemned the duties.

• The Sons of Liberty organised resistance.

• Boston became the centre of opposition.

Why was Boston the centre of resistance?

Boston contained:

• Strong Patriot leadership.

• Active Sons of Liberty membership.

• Major customs collection operations.

Sam Adams:

• Leader of the Sons of Liberty

• Organised resistance.

• Encouraged boycotts.

• Coordinated opposition to customs officials.

What happened at the Boston Massacre (1770)?

5 March 1770:

• Protesters confronted British troops outside Boston Customs House.

• Soldiers fired into the crowd.

• Five colonists were killed.

Patriots labelled the event a "massacre" and used it as propaganda against Britain.

Why was the Boston Massacre not the point of no return?

Because Britain soon:

• Repealed most Townshend Duties.

• Retained only the tax on tea.

What were the Committees of Correspondence?

Networks established across colonies to:

• Share information.

• Coordinate resistance.

• Spread Patriot ideas.

Significance:

• Created intercolonial unity.

• Allowed resistance to operate beyond British control.

What was the Tea Act (1773)?

he Tea Act:

• Allowed the East India Company to sell directly to America.

• Made legal tea cheaper than smuggled tea.

British aim:

• Save the struggling East India Company.

• Increase customs revenue.

Colonists viewed it as another attempt to impose taxation without representation.

What happened during the Boston Tea Party (1773)?

16 December 1773:

• Around 60 Sons of Liberty boarded East India Company ships.

• Disguised themselves.

• Dumped approximately £10,000 worth of tea into Boston Harbour.

This represented direct resistance to British authority.

Why was the Boston Tea Party significant?

• Challenged British authority directly.

• Destroyed valuable property.

• Convinced Britain stronger action was necessary.

It triggered the Coercive Acts of 1774 and pushed both sides closer to war.

What were the Coercive Acts (1774)?

Included:

• Closed Boston Harbour.

• Reduced self-government.

• Allowed officials to be tried elsewhere (to prevent patriots from getting away with murder).

• Expanded military accommodation rights.

• Quebec Act: Extended Quebec's territory.

Together, they aimed to punish Massachusetts.

Why did the Coercive Acts backfire?

Britain hoped to isolate Boston.

Instead:

• Colonies united.

• Sympathy for Massachusetts increased.

• Resistance became coordinated.

The Acts transformed a local dispute into a continental crisis.

Why was the First Continental Congress important (1774)?

Met in September 1774.

• Coordinated colonial resistance.

• Supported Massachusetts.

• Encouraged military preparation.

This was the first major attempt at united colonial action.

Britain declared Massachusetts in a state of rebellion on 9 Feb 1775 and they began to prepare for war.

What happened at Lexington and Concord (1775)?

General Gage attempted to seize Patriot weapons in Feb 1775 but failed.

18 April 1775:

He attempted a secret mission to Concord with only 4,000 men available to him

At Lexington:

• 75 militia confronted British troops.

• The first shots of the war were fired.

At Concord:

• British destroyed supplies.

• Were harassed by steady fire during retreat.

Results:

• 273 British casualties, including 73 killed

• Boston was besieged by 20,000 colonial militia

• Beginning of armed conflict.

Why was Lexington and Concord important?

It demonstrated:

• Britain controlled Boston.

• Britain did not control Massachusetts.

The colonies could mobilise armed resistance rapidly.

The American Revolution had effectively begun.

What happened at Bunker Hill (1775)?

17 June 1775.

Thousands of British reinforcements arrived

British forces launched frontal assaults.

Result:

• Couldn’t be classed as a British victory.

• Extremely heavy casualties - 1,000 of the 2,500 British engaged became casualties.

• Americans lost fewer than half of that

Significance:

• Showed colonial forces could fight effectively.

• Damaged British confidence.

Why was George III's proclamation of rebellion important?

23 August 1775: Declared all the colonies to be in a state of rebellion.

Why was the Second Continental Congress important?

Met in May 1775.

Key decisions:

• Issued paper money.

• Created a Continental Army.

• Appointed George Washington as commander.

• Formal Declaration of Independence

Effectively became America's national government.

What was the Olive Branch Petition (1775) ?

8 July 1775.

Attempt by Congress to:

• Appeal directly to George III.

• End hostilities.

• Achieve reconciliation.

The King rejected it.

Many colonists concluded peaceful compromise was impossible.

Why was Thomas Paine's Common Sense important (1776)?

Published January 1776.

Arguments:

• Reconciliation impossible.

• The monarchy was flawed.

• Independence was necessary.

Sold approximately 12,000 copies.

It helped transform opinion in favour of independence.

When was the Declaration of Independence adopted?

• Passed: 2 July 1776

• Formally adopted: 4 July 1776

Only New York initially abstained.

It declared the colonies independent states.

What complaints were listed in the Declaration of Independence?

Examples included:

• Taxation without consent.

• Quartering troops.

• Restricting trade.

• Denial of representative government.

These reflected long-standing colonial grievances.

What were the Articles of Confederation?

America's first constitutional framework.

Key principles:

• States retained significant powers, no president/prime minister/cabinet.

• Congress remained weak.

• No strong executive.

Purpose:

• Prevent the creation of another powerful central government like Britain.

What strengths did the Americans possess during the war?

• George Washington's leadership.

• Strong political unity through Congress.

• Commitment to defending homes.

• Large territory.

• Long coastline.

Britain struggled to destroy Patriot resistance completely.

What strengths did Britain possess?

• World's strongest navy.

• Around 340 Royal Navy ships.

• More than 48,000 soldiers worldwide.

• Hessian mercenaries.

• Superior financial resources.

On paper Britain appeared overwhelmingly stronger.

What were Britain's main weaknesses

Logistical Problems:

• Supplying armies across the Atlantic was slow, expensive and unreliable.

• British forces often operated far from their supply bases.

Leadership Problems

• Poor coordination between commanders such as Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne.

• Lack of a clear overall strategy.

Global Commitments

• Britain had military obligations elsewhere in the Empire.

What happened at Saratoga (1777)?

October 1777

General Burgoyne:

• Advanced over 200 miles, banking on reinforcements from General Clinton's forces South.

• Became isolated.

• Surrounded by American forces.

• 5,895 troops surrendered to General Gates.

First major British defeat.

Burgoyne was overconfident, placed a bet that he would be home by Christmas

Why did France enter the war?

Reasons:

• Revenge for the Seven Years' War.

• Opportunity to weaken Britain.

• Confidence after Saratoga.

Treaties signed in 1778 with America after persuasion from B. Franklin

France formally entered the war.

Why did Spain enter the war?

Spain joined France against Britain because:

• Long-standing rivalry with Britain.

• Opportunity to recover influence and territory.

The war became global.

Why was French and Spanish intervention so damaging to Britain?

Britain now had to fight:

• In North America.

• Caribbean.

• Europe.

• Overseas colonies.

Statistics:

• Britain lost 45% of men in North America.

• Royal Navy suffered 28% losses in American waters.

Defeating France became a higher priority than retaining America.

What happened at Yorktown (1781)?

British turned their focus to the south, where they believed there were more loyalists, but they were wrong.

• Cornwallis only had 4,000 men as the British had to split forces.

• Washington commanded approximately 16,000 American and French troops.

• Laid siege to the British for 3 weeks

• French naval support prevented escape.

• Cornwallis surrendered on 19 Oct

Why did Britain decide to seek peace?

Factors:

• Yorktown.

• French intervention.

• Economic costs.

• Political pressure in Parliament.

• Trade disruption.

Britain increasingly viewed retaining the colonies as not worth the cost.

What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783)?

Signed by:

• Britain

• USA

• France

• Spain

• Holland

Terms:

• Britain recognised American independence.

• Spain gained Florida.

• Britain retained valuable possessions such as Barbados.

The United States became an independent nation.

What was the impact of defeat on Britain?

Political

• Lord North resigned (1782).

• William Pitt emerged as a key leader.

Economic

• National debt reached approximately £232 million.

Imperial

• Britain shifted attention elsewhere.

• Convict transportation to Australia began within five years.