Learning & Memory Final

Explicit retrieval

conscious and controllable; requires deliberate mental effort (ex: remembering a phone number).

Implicit retrieval

automatic and below threshold of conscious awareness (ex: driving a car)

Accessible memory is much smaller than

Available (stored) memory

Above the iceberg =

Retrieval

Below the iceberg =

Available memory

In retrieval, information is stored but not necessarily accessible without a…

Cue

Feeling of Knowing (FOK) Judgement

Attempting to make a quick estimate of whether we would be able to recognize something without actually trying to recall it

FOK Paradigm

(1) Attempt to recall information, (2) judge whether they could recognize it, (3) attempt recognition

Metacognitive Nature

The individual asks themselves about the state of their knowledge; involves thinking about our own knowledge.

Principle #1 of FOK: Automatic

Judgments happen instantly and automatically

Principle #2 of FOK: Strategy Search

Judgement acts as s strategic decision gate

Principle #3 of FOK: Retrieval Termination

Serves as an efficient mechanism; if there is no “feeling” that we know the answer, we terminate the search immediately to avoid wasting cognitive resources

Principle #4 of FOK: Metacognitive Ability

We possess a rapid self-assessment quality; we can evaluate the state of our own knowledge and predict recognition success before actual retrieval occurs

Theory #1 of FOK: Direct-Access Explanation

Attempts to retrieve the memory directly as assess the “strength” of the memory trace itself

Theory #2 of FOK: Indirect-Access Explanation

(1) Cue Familiarity Hypothesis: people use a shortcut or heuristic to get a quick sense of whether the memory might be available based on the familiarity of the cue. (2) Target Accessibility Hypothesis: we attempt to retrieve a few details about the memory and then take into account how easily it was to recall them.

Strategy #1 of FOK: Stimulus

You encounter a question or cue

Strategy #2 of FOK: Cue Familiarity

Do you recognize the topic or the cue itself

Strategy #3 of FOK: Target Accessibility

Can you recall related details or fragments

Strategy #4 of FOK: Full Retrieval

Invest effort to fully retrieve the memory

Retrieval Cues

Information that is used to activate a memory trace to see if we can access a memory; includes emotions, beliefs, and context

External Cues

Visual, sound, smells, atmosphere

Internal Cues

Thoughts, mood, physiological state, intoxication

Availability

The memory traces exist in your brain’s storage

Accessibility

A memory can be available but not accessible if you lack the right cues

Free Recall

Few cues are provided and it is the hardest to access (ex: writing an essay using specific evidence)

Cued Recall

Hints provided and improves accessibility

Recognition

Target is the cue and has the easiest access (ex: multiple choice quiz)

Retrospective Memory

Recall past events, people, words, and experiences previously learned or encountered; what happened in the past?

Prospective Memory

Remembering to carry out some intended action in the future without any explicit reminder; what do I need to do in the future?

Stages of prospective memory

(1) Intention Formation, (2) Retention Interval (3) Performance Interval (4) Initiation and Execution (5) Evaluation

Intention Formation

Encoding the intention and the action to be performed

Retention Interval

Delay period: monitoring for cues while doing other tasks

Performance Interval

The window of opportunity opens to execute the plan

Initiation and Execution

Retrieving the intention and performing the action

Evaluation

Recording the outcome (completed or cancelled)

Sources of prospective memory

(1) Self-generated and (2) assigned

Self-Generated

Tasks you decide to do yourself (ex: I need to buy milk on the way home)

Assigned

Tasks others ask or tell you to do (ex: please submit this report by 5pm)

Failures of prospective memory

(1) Everyday annoyances (ex: burning the food in the oven because you forgot the timer) and (2) critical failures (ex: a surgeon leaving a medical instrument inside a patient)

Future tasks of prospective memory

(1) Time-based and (2) event-based

Time based tasks

Perform an action at a specific time or after a specific duration; difficulty level: harder (requires self-monitoring)

Event based tasks

Perform an action when a specific external event occurs; the environment provides the cue, reducing the need for constant internal monitoring

Consolidation

Process of stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition; transforms a fragile new memory into a stable long-term memory

Active Trace Theory

When a memory is retrieved, it enters an active state where it becomes unstable and can be altered before being stored again (reconsolidated)

Context of active trace theory

Traumatic memories are intrusive and carry an overwhelming emotional charge

Goal of active trace theory

Dampen the emotional intensity of the memory without erasing the factual event itself

Mechanism of active trace theory

Recall the trauma, administer the beta-blocker medication (lowers blood pressure and slows heart rate), and re-store the traumatic memory with reduced emotional affect

Reconsolidation

Retrieval is not a passive playback; rather, it initiates a cellular process that temporarily makes the memory trace unstable again

Correction (reason a memory becomes unstable)

Allows us to fix errors in the formation that might be incorrect or outdated

Updating (reason a memory becomes unstable)

Allows us to integrate new details into existing memories

Retrieval practice effect

The act of retrieving a memory is not just a check; it is an active modifier that makes the memory more accessible in the future

Desirable difficulties

Retrieval is most effective when it is difficult; struggling to recall an answer signals the brain that this information is important

Place-dependent context cues

Physical environment matches where the learning took place

State dependent context cues

Internal physiological state matches the state during encoding

Mood-dependent context cues

When your emotional mood matches the mood you were in when you encoded the memory

Same environment situational effect

It is more beneficial to study in a place that resembles the testing environment

Mental reinstatement situational effect

If you blank out during an exam, close your eyes and visualize the place where you studied; this mental context can trigger retrieval cues

Regulated state situational effect

Avoid studying under conditions you cannot replicate during the test'; don't rely on loud music or caffeine if you can't have them during the exam

Matched processing situational effect

Practice the type of retrieval required: if it's an essay exam, practice writing essays

Retrieval in groups

When people work together to remember information, we might expect the group to outperform individuals

Nominal Group

Pooled results of individuals working alone (greater than)

Individual Group

Group working together to recall (less than)

Retrieval Strategy Disruption

Listening to others' output disrupts your own idiosyncratic organization and retrieval plan, forcing you to switch strategies inefficiently

Social Loafing

Individuals may exert less effort in a group setting, relying on others to do the work of retrieval

Evaluation Apprehension

Fear of being judged by the group may cause individuals to without potential answers if they aren't 100% sure

Cognitive Overload

Listening to others and monitoring the groups' progress consumes the cognitive resources (working memory) that could otherwise be used for retrieval

Reducing collaborative inhibition

Certain conditions can minimize the disruption and allow groups to perform closer to their potential

Group Familiarity

Close friends or couples often develop a transactive memory system; they know who knows what, reducing conflict and overlap

Division of Labor

Assigning specific roles or categories minimized strategy disruption

Expertise

Experts have highly organized knowledge structures that are more robust and resistant to disruption from others' output

Remembering

Happens when we retrieve vivid, detailed memories and can relive them

Knowing

Describes retrieving general knowledge and concepts that are associated with past learning

Episodic Memories

Events from everyday life, our emotional reactions, what we sensed at the time, recalled in chronological order, how we interpret or perceived what went on

Involuntary episodic memories

Can present themselves without a conscious search (ex: a song getting stuck in your head after hearing it earlier).

Observer in episodic memories

Perspective outside themselves, watching themselves; this is common in childhood memories; influenced by photos and videos; makes it difficult to judge whether the memory was actually real or created

Our interests and needs increase…

The depth of processing and attention we pay; if the event is processed more deeply, then we are able to recall it better later

Rehearsal

How often an event is repeated and seems to alter our memory of those events as well

Flashbulb Memories

Often emotional and exceptionally vivid memories; feels clear and accurate although they can contain inaccuracies; passage of time and physical proximity to the original event are factors that predict the accuracy of memories

Autobiographical Memories

Mix of personal events about general knowledge; includes how we have seen ourselves in the past; represents biological facts about our lives and includes copies of events; subjective interpretation of the event

Direct Function (of autobiographical memories)

Using past personal experiences to guide current and future thoughts, actions, and decision-making

Social Function (of autobiographical memories)

Using personal memories to build social bonds, foster intimacy, and facilitate understanding in relationships

Self-Function (of autobiographical memories)

Using personal memories to construct, maintain, and update a coherent sense of identity, or “self,” over time

Structure of autobiographical memories

Can be retrieved on demand; includes grouped information around personal events; organized chronologically by periods of one’s life or by themes; more pleasant events are better remembered

Conway’s Self-Memory System

Describes the organization and structure of autobiographical memories; 2 major components: working self and autobiographical knowledge base

Working Self

Perspective we have on ourselves today; our sense of who we are and what we want to become; the purpose is to limit what we spend time thinking about so that we can focus on what matters most to us

Autobiographical Knowledge Base

Information grouped by lifetime periods, the most broad category and general events; includes factual knowledge about ourselves as well as evaluations about who we are; acts as a “life story”

Developmental changes of autobiographical memory

When we are younger, we do not have the ability to create a narrative story of our memories. As we get older, we get better at connecting events into a story.

Left hemisphere

Retrieval activity begins here; the presence of emotion in an autobiographical memory tends to be what shifts the balance in brain activity from the left hemisphere to the right

Prefrontal cortex

Necessary for the sense of memory being in relation to ourselves

Dorsal parietal cortex

Controlled attention to our autobiographical memory is engaged

Declarative Memory

Conscious recollection of facts and events (explicit); know THAT; processed by the hippocampus; ex: knowing that a dog is a mammal (semantic) or remembering your last birthday party (episodic)

Procedural Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and habits (implicit); knowing HOW; managed by the cerebellum; ex: knowing how to type on a computer

Semantic Memory

Stores general world knowledge: facts, concepts, meanings, language; independent of personal experience or time; structured network of information

Remember

Clearly recall when you heard the word (episodic memory, context); conscious recollection of details; mentally re-experiencing an event an its context from one’s past

Know

Words feel familiar but no specific context; semantic or familiarity-based memory; accurately knowing some facts from one’s past

New

Word was not presented before

Brain evidence

Neuroimaging support this distinction: the areas of the brain activated during semantic memories are not the same as those activated during episodic memories

PET scans demonstrate that…

Retrieval of semantic memories rely on: left hemisphere (ex: recalling the meaning of photosynthesis). Retrieval of episodic memories rely on: right hemisphere (ex: recalling the day you dissected a leaf in biology class).

Memorization

Not an actual visual copy of the word; the meaning of the word altered by the context of the moment is what is actually stored

Single-Stage Model

Recall depends on finding a direct match between the retrieval cues and the content of the memory (happens faster); retrieval of recognition succeeds when there’s a strong, unique match between the cue and the stored memory, without needing additional processing stages