Youth and Sexuality

11 Steps of Sexuality

1. “I am wonderful” (Infancy–Toddlerhood): Babies discover their body parts and show curiosity about gender differences. This phase focuses on building a positive body image and trust through early interactions with caregivers.

2. Affection for a friend (Toddlerhood–Middle Childhood): Children express affection through kissing and hugging friends. They begin learning social norms regarding intimacy and safety skills, such as the "three-step rule" (say no, go away, tell a trusted adult).

3. Adoring a parent (Toddlerhood–Middle Childhood): Children often profess profound affection for a parent and may even express a desire to marry them. It is a safe way for children to practice expressing strong emotions.

4. Loving idols (Middle Childhood–Adolescence): Affection shifts to distant, safe objects of love, such as teachers or celebrities. This phase allows for safe daydreaming and helps build self-esteem as a prerequisite for later romantic fantasies.

5. A nearby secret love (Middle Childhood–Adolescence): The focus shifts to a familiar, accessible person, though the feelings are often kept hidden due to shyness and embarrassment.

6. Love disclosed (Late Childhood–Middle Adolescence): Young people begin to talk about love and their crushes with peers and parents. They may occasionally exaggerate their experiences to gain status among friends.

7. “I like you” (Late Childhood–Middle Adolescence): The individual gains the courage to profess their love directly to the person they admire. This step is crucial for developing resilience in the face of possible success or rejection.

8. Holding hands (Early to Middle Adolescence): Adolescents experience physical closeness, such as walking hand-in-hand, which teaches them how to control their behavior in emotionally charged situations.

9. Kissing (Early to Middle Adolescence): This is the first time an individual typically dares to combine physical sexual feelings with the emotion of love in a relationship.

10. “What feels good?” (Middle to Late Adolescence): Partners begin the pleasurable exploration of each other's bodies and skin. This phase focuses on sexual communication, mutual enjoyment, and the importance of consent.

11. Maturity to make love (Middle to Late Adolescence): This represents the readiness for first sexual intercourse. It requires mutual trust, safety, and a shared decision to move toward deeper physical togetherness.

Traditional theories of sexual development

• Classical Psychoanalytical Theory: This theory recognized childhood sexuality from infancy, dividing it into oral, anal, phallic, and early genital phases. It suggested a "latency" period where sexuality withdraws before re-emerging during puberty.

• Attachment Theory: This posits that the early bond between an infant and caregiver serves as a prototype for all future social and romantic relationships. A secure attachment style in childhood is linked to more positive emotional affect in adulthood.

• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: Development is viewed as a series of crises (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion). Successful resolution of trust, autonomy and initiative in these stages is necessary for the eventual development of intimacy in adulthood.

• Developmental Tasks Theory: This theory suggests that adolescents must complete specific tasks—such as accepting their bodies, adopting gender roles, and achieving emotional independence—to succeed in later life stages.

• Cognitive and Social Learning Theories: These argue that individuals are "active constructors" of cognitive schemas regarding gender, developed through continuous interaction with their environment.

• Biological and Epigenetic Research: Research shows that brain anatomy and hormones influence gendered behaviors. Furthermore, "epigenetics" suggests that early social experiences can actually change the expression of genes, shaping lasting differences in brain function and behavior.

Findings Sex under Age 25

Key Positive Trends

• Later Sexual Debut: Young people are starting sexual activities later. The median age for first intercourse rose to 18.6 years, compared to 17.1 years in 2012.

• High Satisfaction: Most sexually experienced youth find sex pleasant (94% of men; 90% of women) and use of contraception during first intercourse is very high (over 92%).

• Increased Tolerance: There has been a significant increase in tolerance toward homosexuality. 3% is genderdiverse

Primary Concerns

• Sexual Coercion: While there is a slight decrease, coercion remains a serious issue, experienced by 14% of young women and 3% of young men.

• Declining Condom Use: While used at first intercourse, consistent condom use has declined with most recent partners, and many youth have negative views about carrying them. Also less pill-use and more spiraal use. But no increase in STDS.

• Women experience less sexual pleasure than men: they experience more pain and less orgasms.

• Assumptions on relationships change: more girls think sex without being in a relationship is normal. Boys aren’t good at assuming when another person wants sex.

• Information Gaps: Young people feel school education is mediocre, focusing heavily on biology/risk (STIs, pregnancy) while neglecting topics like sexual pleasure, media influence, and coercion.

New Developments

• Digital Media: One in six met their most recent partner through digital media, and sexting has become more common, with 1 in 8 young people sending nude images in the past six months. However, less use of dating apps. Women watch more pornography.

When is gender typed sexual behaviour more likely? “Doing gender”

Gender typed sexual behavior may be relatively likely to be enacted in situations where, among others, gender is relatively salient, or in situations that are public, unfamiliar or confusing, or when less individuated information about subjects is available, such as flirting situations, first dates, and new sexual relations among newcomers in the sexual arena. 

When is gendered sexuality more likely in a relationship?

Gendered sexuality is also more likely to be put into effect when interacting partners positively value gender norm conformity, are highly gender typed themselves, are strongly expectant of matching gender typed behavior in their partners, and/or trigger gender typed behavior with the other(s) by gender typical self-presentation.

Factors that better explain sexual behaviour than biological determinism

• Societal Factors: The sexual double standard remains a powerful force, often placing women in an ambiguous position (being "sexy" but modest) while giving men a "sexual mandate" to be proactive.

• Personality and Demographics: Age, education, religiosity, attachment styles, and "Big Five" personality traits all significantly influence sexual expression independent of gender. Women have more plasticity and men are more sexually rigid.

• Objectification Theory: The cultural objectification of the female body leads to "spectatoring" (internalizing an observer’s perspective), which can distract women from their own internal sexual states and hinder satisfaction. They feel they have to be performative.

What is the Sexual Strategies Theory (SST)?

SST is the first psychological theory of mating to hypothesize an array of diverse mating strategies within the human evolved arsenal. Central to this theory is the temporal dimension of mating, which can range from exceptionally long-term (e.g., lifelong committed mating) at one end to brief sexual encounters at the other. Specifically, it now more fully explains individual differences within gender in mating strategies pursued. It has expanded to encompass a wider array of social, cultural, personal, and ecological variables as they interact with mating strategies. And it has delved more deeply into adaptive problems faced by both genders, such as solutions to the problem of commitment in long-term mating
Gender similarities outnumber gender differences.

Results of the hypothesis: Gender differences in minimal levels of obligate parental investment should lead short-term mating to represent a larger component of men’s than women’s sexual strategies.

•  Men generally relax their standards in short-term mating compared to women.
Men are more willing than women to engage in sex with partners outside of their long-term mate-ship.

• Men who have affairs, compared to women who have affairs, have them with a larger number of sex partners.

• Men are overwhelmingly more likely to have sexual fantasies involving multiple short-term partners.

• The content of men’s pornography consumption, compared to that of women, contains themes of short-term sex with multiple partners.

• Men are more likely to pay for short-term sex.

• Men desire a larger number of sex partners over various time intervals.

• Men tend to seek sex sooner, after a briefer time delay, than women.

• Men are more likely to respond affirmatively to invitations for sex with strangers of the opposite sex.

• Men have more positive attitudes toward casual sex.

• Men are more likely than women to express “regret” about missed sexual opportunities.

• Men have more “unrestricted” sociosexual attitudes than women

Adaptations to ovulation and the ‘good genes’ hypothesis

Men either have adaptations to ovulation or women experience physical or behavioral changes at ovulation that are detectable by men and seen as sexually attractive. Studies suggest that men can detect subtle cues to changes that occur in women when they ovulate, and moreover find these cues attractive. They show that men find women’s voices, body odors, waist-to-hip ratios, skin tone, and facial features to be more attractive at ovulation compared to the non-fertile phases of the cycle. Furthermore, there is evidence from two studies indicating that men amplify their mate-guarding efforts when their partners are ovulating.
Most prominent has been the “good genes” hypothesis, whereby women shift their mate preferences toward men who possess hypothesized markers of good genes, such as masculine features and symmetrical features.

Evolution of standards of beauty

Standards of beauty are predicted not to be arbitrary or “culturally constructed”, but rather anchored in observable cues recurrently available to ancestral males over evolutionary time.

Observable cues to youth (e.g., clear skin, smooth skin, facial adiposity, lustrous hair) and cues to health (e.g., absence of sores or lesions), have been robustly documented to be cues to female attractiveness across cultures. Because a woman’s physical appearance provides a wealth of information about her fertility, evolutionary psychologists predicted in advance of data collection that men more than women across cultures would value appearance more in long-term mate selection.

Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) provides an powerful non-arbitrary cue to health and fertility, and so it should have evolved to become part of a non-arbitrary standard of female beauty.

Causes of rape based on Evolutionary Psychology

In cross-cultural perspective, men tend to control resources and power:

1. Men often control women through resources

2. Men’s control of women often centers on their sexuality and reproduction

3. Some men psychologically treat women as “property” to be owned, controlled, and used

4. Men’s sexual aggression circumvents women’s freedom of choice

5. Some women, as well as some men, often mutually participate in perpetuating oppression.

2+ by authors —>

1. One is a history of rejection by women, triggered when men aspire to mate with women who are outside of their mate-value range.

2. Second, a subset of men seems particularly prone to the confluence of hostile masculinity and a short-term mating strategy—psychopaths.

The two central contenders for explaining sexual coercion are (1) adaptations for rape, (2) byproducts of adaptations that evolved in non-rape contexts (e.g., desire for sexual variety; male use of aggression for other instrumental goals), or some combination of the two.

What is sexual dimorphism? Example?

Sexes of the same species exhibit different morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction.
Men have a larger amygdala and sexually dimorphic nucleus on average. The size of the dimorphic parts of the brain of transgender people align more with the gender they identify with than the one assigned at birth.

Sex-specific mating strategies?

Buss & Schmitt (1993): mating strategies:

• Females valued ‘resource acquisition’ more than males.

• Males valued physical attractiveness and relative youth more.

• accounts for age disparity in heterosexual relationships

Possible explanations:

• Parental investment: need for dependable partner

• Sexual selection: physical attractivity (in both men and women) may be linked to genetical health

• Trade-offs: masculine looking men may have genetical health, but may be less dependable parents

Poststructuralist views of gendered behaviour

The body, like gender, as a social construct: ways of knowing our body informed by cultural norms. Social Construction of Identity: Rather than discovering an inner, essential sexual "nature," individuals are shaped by the language, symbols, and social scripts available to them in a given era. Such at the impact of colonialism, power dynamics, social class and race.

Explain results found from the intergroup threat theory on misogynistic attitudes in young men

Young men were more influenced due to viewing manfluencers as the only source of political information and seeing feminism as a threat to their future opportunities (job market).

Findings consistently showed that manfluencer content portraying women and feminism as threats to men’s status was associated with increased misogynistic attitudes among young men.

In the survey, young men who followed a higher number of manfluencers were more likely to express dehumanizing views of women.

In the experimental studies, exposure to threatening fictive manfluencer content led to more mistrust of women and increased misogynistic attitudes compared to those in a control group.

The effect of this threatening content was particularly evident among those who perceived themselves to have been rejected by women in the past.

Perceived rejection by women is an important moderator in understanding how threat content from manfluencers influences misogynistic attitudes.

• Negative spiral: young men who feel rejected or fear rejection may turn to the manosphere, where they encounter narratives blaming feminism for their situation. This, in turn, reinforces and deepens their misogynistic beliefs.

Motives for sharing non-consensual images/nudes

• Revenge: This occurs not just between ex-lovers but also between former friends, or as a reaction to receiving unwanted "digital flashing".

• Unloading Tension: For young people, sexuality is often new and "scary." Sharing a shocking or "funny" image can be a way of processing the tension or shock of seeing nudity.

• Reinforcing Friendships: Some youth share images as an act of "care" or social obligation to friends, viewing the material as a way to strengthen social bonds.

• Conversation Starters: Images sometimes function as a way to initiate peer discussions and learning about romantic and sexual experiences.

• Regulating Behavior: Some perpetrators, especially girls, share images to "teach a lesson" to others, punishing peers who violate traditional norms by participating in sexting.

• Gaining Popularity: Sexual images, particularly of girls, have "currency" in a digital marketplace; sharing them can be a way for a perpetrator to gain social status or acceptance.

What are the taboos surrounding sexting?

• Nudity and sexuality → This taboo, together with the ‘newness’ of nudity and sexuality for young people, contributes to sexual images becoming interesting, exciting, and/or shocking, which makes young people more eager to (non-consensually) share them.

• Sexting → Sexting is seen as a shameful activity that is only undertaken by weak, insecure, desperate and/or stupid people (girls). Very negative opinions about sexting.

  • This facilitates non-consensual image sharing: it makes it easier to share other people’s images without their consent and to blame the victim for it.

• Victim-blaming→ ‘In the end, it’s the person who made the picture who is responsible’

These norms are highly gendered, and sexual double standards played an important role —>

• Gendered evaluations of ‘sexual’ images makes girls more vulnerable, as her pictures are judged as more sexual, and therefore more ‘interesting’ to share.

• Girls judged harsher than boys for making and sharing sexual images of themselves, and girls were often confronted with slut-shaming and stigmatization.

• For boys, gendered sexual norms encourage them to obtain and share girls’ sexual images, for girls, they perform normative chaste femininity by non-consensually sharing other girls’ images and claiming not be as ‘slutty’ as the victim.

Results from study analyzing sex-initiative among youth

• Overall decrease in early sexual initiation among 15-year-olds across 33 European countries between 2010 and 2018. The strongest drop occurred between 2010 and 2014. The decrease may be part of a broader international decline in adolescent risk behaviors such as substance use, smoking, and juvenile crime. Possible explanations include reduced face-to-face social interaction, fewer adolescent romantic relationships, delayed “adult-like” behavior, and lower substance use, since intoxication can increase sexual risk-taking.

• Boys still reported sexual initiation more often than girls, although this gender gap became slightly smaller over time. This difference could reflect real behavioral differences or reporting bias. The gender gap is linked to gender norms and the sexual double standard, where sexual activity is more socially accepted for boys than for girls. Gender inequality and traditional gender norms mainly influenced girls’ reporting, while boys were not affected.

• Countries with more gender equality and more progressive gender role attitudes showed smaller gender gaps, and in these countries girls were more likely to report sexual initiation.

• The study suggests that reducing gender inequality and challenging traditional gender norms may improve girls’ sexual autonomy and health, for example by making it easier for them to seek information and healthcare and to make autonomous decisions about sex.

Ecological model of youth’s social environment

• Microsystem: parents, peers and school (proximal social context)

• Mesosystem: interaction between microsystems

• Exosystem: social media, SES, healthcare, policies, school board

• Macrosystem: social norms, culture, economic system

• Chronosystem: changes over time, generational differences

Parenting factors on sexual initiation

General parenting factors

• - E.g., Relationship quality (support, closeness, warmth)

Protective factor for:

• - Early sexual initiation

• - Consistent condom- and contraceptive use

• - Interaction skills (communication, autonomy, esteem)

• - Positive sexual emotion

Sex-specific parenting factors

• - E.g., Communication about (safe) sex

• Does NOT lead to more intention to have sex.

3 types of peer norms that lead to adolescent sexual behaviour

• Descriptive norms: peer sexual behaviour (strongest correlation)

• Injunctive norms: peer sexual attitudes (2nd strongest)

• Peer pressure (weakest)

  • Parent-adolescent communication about sex decreases the influence of peers

The impact of porn on youth’s sexual beliefs, norms and behaviour (theories and explanation)

1. Cultivation theory: sexualizing/objectifying media → sexual beliefs/attitudes

2. Social cognitive theory: observation and imitation of behaviour

3. Social comparison theory: self-perception/upward comparison

4. Differential susceptibility media effects model:

• emphasizes the active role of young people in the selection of and interaction with media content.

• Personal, developmental and social factors influence media use as well as the effect of media use (moderators)

• Implies that the effects of media on an individuals attitudes/behaviors/ well-being are mediated by cognitive, emotional and excitative response states

The actual impact depends on many factors. Risks:

- Unrealistic expectations

- Lower self-image

- Relationships & intimacy

Interactive = more engaging → larger effects

Source of sexual exploration or inspiration: young people are in a critical stage of forming sexual identity and expectations. When pornography becomes the primary or only source of sexual information, that's when it can skew development. This is why comprehensive sex education is so important!

Why today’s youth start having sex later

• Spend less time face-to-face → less experience with dating IRL → threshold for sex becomes higher

• Fear to become a victim of online shaming (e.g. sharing experiences / gossip that you are ‘easy’)

• Maybe young people have become more critical → increase in potential partners due to social media and dating apps → more critical → more rejecting mindset → later sex

• Photoshopped and unrealistic (but nonetheless ‘perfect’) photos of others → insecurity, fear of failure, not daring to experiment

• Perfectionism is increasing → your first experience has to be ‘perfect’

• Older when you go out, means older when you first kiss or one-night-stands.

• Young people have become more risk-averse, decrease in alcohol- and drug consumption, juvenile crime etc.

• More protective and monitoring parenting behaviour

• Concerns About the Future: Increased intergenerational inequality and high pressure regarding schoolwork lead young people to prioritize future stability over immediate romantic or sexual experiences.

What is the gate management model in Sexual Assault Centers (SACS)? And what are the results from the study?

Where medical, forensic and psychological care is provided for victims in the same place.

• Forensic examinations are conducted by trained professionals to collect evidence while ensuring victim comfort and minimizing retraumatization.

• Medical services include treatment of injuries, screening, and preventive measures for STIs and pregnancy.

• Psychological services focus on psychoeducation and trauma screening during the first month post-assault (watchful waiting), with referrals for specialized treatment as needed.

1/3 victims were minors, ¼ prior assault, 44% were accute

What are the causes for intrafamilial child sexual abuse?

Family dysfunction:

• Socio-Ecological Stressors: lower socio-economic status and a higher likelihood of homelessness.

• Disorganised Family Structures: more likely to have non-intact parental structures (separations, divorces, or stepfamily) → a proxy for instability or broken parenting structures.

• Dysfunctional Relationships: more spousal conflict and problematic parenting behaviours.

• Vulnerabilities in Parents: Parents had more extensive criminal histories, mental health problems, and substance abuse issues (particularly alcohol abuse). Higher rates of their own childhood abuse histories → intergenerational continuity of victimisation and perpetration.

The Prevalence of "Poly-Abuse":

Almost half (47%) experienced at least one other form of nonsexual abuse.

• Physical abuse: 48%

• Exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV): 42%

• Emotional abuse: 37%

• Neglect: 34%

Children in ICSA families had over twice the odds of experiencing these forms of nonsexual abuse compared to children in other families.

Where and with whom does sexual harassment often take place? Consequences?

• In adolescence. Sexual harassment is more likely to occur in high school, and girls are more likely to report being the target of sexual harassment, while boys are more likely to report being the perpetrator.

• Sexual harassment is damaging to girls’ social, emotional, and academic outcomes and can lead to emotional distress, lowered self-esteem, negative body appraisals, depression, disordered eating, substance abuse, and suicidal thoughts.

• Adolescent sexual harassment typically occurs from peer to peer, in the presence of a small network of peers, and usually in school classrooms and hallways.

• Peer group norms largely determine the degree to which sexual harassment is tolerated and condoned, and adolescents who reported perpetrating high rates of sexual harassment belonged to friend groups who also reported high rates of sexual harassment perpetration.

• Peer sexual harassment is often thought of as normal due to its links to developmental milestones such as puberty, increased interest in sexual activity, and dating and “boys being boys”, few consequences for the perpetrators.

Bioecological theory of sexual harassment: PARENTS

• Parents often emphasize gender as a strict binary (boy/girl), making it a highly important category for children.

• They reinforce gender differences through names, clothing, toys, room decorations, colors, and language.

• Parents tend to socialize girls to be passive, submissive, and accommodating.

• Parents are more likely to encourage anger and aggression in boys.

• Girls are often encouraged to focus on appearance from an early age, while boys are not.

• Appearance-focused toys and behaviors are commonly seen as appropriate for girls, whereas aggressive toys are seen as appropriate for boys.

• By early childhood, children have learned strong ideas about what behaviors are considered acceptable for girls and boys.

Bioecological theory of sexual harassment: PEERS

• Peers strongly influence children’s attitudes and behaviors, sometimes even more than parents.

• Children tend to form friendships with same-gender peers, leading to gender-segregated groups. Same-gender peer groups strengthen gender-typical behaviors (e.g., aggression among boys).

• Children view highly gender-conforming peers as more popular and higher in social status.

• Girls often gain status by conforming to feminine norms, including appearance and sexualization.

• Boys often gain status by being athletic, dominant, and aggressive.

• Peers pressure others to conform to gender norms and may reject, exclude, or stigmatize those who do not.

• Limited interaction between boys and girls reduces opportunities to challenge stereotypes and build positive cross-gender relationships.

• Sexual harassment may be used by some boys to gain social status within peer groups.

• Girls may hesitate to report harassment due to concerns about social consequences or being disliked.

Bioecological theory of sexual harassment: SCHOOL

• Schools often emphasize gender differences by organizing activities, sports, and extracurricular programs around gender.

• Schools may overlook or inadequately address early signs of sexual harassment, which can normalize or tolerate such behavior.

• Clear policies promoting respect, equality, and appropriate behavior can help create a safer school climate.

• Teacher training on recognizing and intervening in harassment is important for prevention.

Bioecological theory of sexual harassment: MEDIA

• Children's media often portrays girls as sexualized, appearance-focused, and passive.

• Boys are frequently depicted as aggressive, dominant, and focused on sex.

• Toys marketed to girls tend to emphasize beauty and attractiveness, while boys' toys often promote aggression and action. Parents commonly purchase toys that align with traditional gender expectations, reinforcing these messages.

• During adolescence, increased exposure to sexualized media can lead to greater self-objectification among girls.

• Sexualized media exposure is also associated with higher acceptance of sexual violence and harassment toward women.

• Early access to sexist or violent pornography can further normalize harassment and sexual aggression.

Conceptualizing consent (3 types)

• Internal State of Willingness: Consent as a private feeling of willingness.

• Explicit Agreement: Directly giving permission, either verbally or in writing.

• Implied or inferred consent: Interpreting a partner's actions (or lack thereof) as a sign of willingness.

Affirmative consent: yes-means-yes vs. no-means-no

Responsibility is with the initiator to find out if the partner wants to have sex, not with the partner to say no and that passiveness is interpreted as consent. This avoids victim-blaming “they didn’t say no”.

What complicates interpreting consent on college campuses?

• Alcohol and Drugs: Intoxication is involved in most sexual assaults. It can impair a victim's ability to recognize risk and causes men to overestimate a woman's sexual intent while ignoring cues of discomfort.

• Gendered Sexual Scripts: Traditional scripts pressure men to be sexually proactive and women to be "gatekeepers". The sexual double standard further complicates things, as women may feel pressured to refuse desired sex to avoid being labeled a "slut," while men may ignore those refusals, assuming they are merely "token resistance".

• Party Culture: Environments often controlled by men (like fraternity houses) can create a "perfect storm" of risk through male control of alcohol, transportation, and physical space.

Principles for thinking about consent

1. Multiple Objectives: People try to be clear about consent while also trying to be polite or avoid social awkwardness.

2. Sequential and Contingent: Communication often starts subtle and only becomes direct if the first approach fails.

3. Concurrent Behaviors: Signals like "not resisting" are usually done alongside active participation (like kissing), which is why isolated passivity is rarely interpreted as consent.

4. Frequency vs. Clarity: The clearest ways to give consent (e.g., saying "I consent") are often the least used because they are socially awkward.

5. Likelihood vs. Agreement: Cues like "going home together" may indicate a high likelihood of interest, but they are not an agreement or an obligation

SOGIE definition

• Sexual orientation: who someone is attracted to, emotionally, physically and romantically (heterosexual, bisexual, homosexual, asexual etc.)

• Gender identity: a person’s internal sense of their own gender (man, woman, non-binary)

• Gender expression: how someone presents their gender outwardly (clothing, behaviour, name, pronouns)

Findings on bisexual/both-sex, other-sex and same-sex attracted youth.

• Bisexual spectrum youth fare worst → they experience more bullying victimisation compared to same-sex and other-sex attracted youth. Bisexuals also report lowest life satisfaction and highest emotional problems

• Younger adolescents experience more bullying victimisation

• Girls experience higher stress rates than boys in all groups, but more boys experience bullying victimisation than girls in the both-sex group.

• No significant difference between bullying victimisation in both-sex and same-sex groups.

What is the minority stress theory?

This theory highlights the interconnectedness between general environmental circumstances (such as socioeconomic factors) and minority status (including sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, and gender), leading to exposure to stressors like discrimination. These stressors are depicted as overlapping and interdependent, influencing individuals' mental health outcomes.

• Distal stressors: discrimination, rejection, violence, things that happen to you

• Proximal stressors: expectations of rejection, concealment, internalised homophobia

• Ameliorating factors: community connectedness, coping resources, social support, buffers against harm

• Developmental amplifiers: greater dependence on family and school, identity still forming, fewer coping resources and social networks

• Characteristics of the minority identity: development, prominence, valence, integration

A developmentally informed model of minority stress theory

For adolescents, certain factors leave them more vulnerable than adults to stress:

1 Identity as a process variable

• Where a youth is in identity formation shapes how stressors land — earlier stages mean greater vulnerability

2 Coming out is multidimensional

• Out to friends ≠ out to parents ≠ out at school — context matters enormously

3 Family is foregrounded

• For adults, family is optional; for teens, it is the unavoidable daily environment

4 School is uniquely significant

• Most adolescents spend 6–8 hours/day in a context they cannot choose to leave

5 Peers are primary

• Peer relationships are the central site of identity affirmation — or harm

What relieves/reduces minority stress?

• Family acceptance: single strongest predictor of positive outcomes for sexual and gender diverse youth

• LGBTQ+ community connectedness: sense of belonging to a wider group buffers internalised stigma

• School belonging and safety: inclusivity, GSA, supportive teachers reduce risk

• Peer support: even one affirming friend matters enormously for wellbeing

• Affirming mental health care: access to SOGIE-competent practitioners

What are ‘de zeven vinkjes’ in intersectionality research?

Witte, hetero mannen, met gymnasium of VWO diploma, universitaire opleiding en minstens één hoogopgeleide, in Nederland geboren ouder - mijlenver voor op de rest van de maatschappij.

These factors influence research →

1. Afkomst en nationaliteit

2. Seksuele oriëntatie

3. Gender en sekse

4. Beperking en chronische ziekte

5. Leeftijd

6. Opleiding

7. Subcultuur

8. Financiële leefsituatie

9. Religie en levensbeschouwing

10. Sociaaleconomische status

11. Taal en geletterdheid

12. Gewicht en uiterlijke kenmerken

What is the psychological mediation framework?

An adaptation of the minority stress model that aims to explain the mechanisms through which minority stress impacts health outcomes. Challenges to general psychological processes explain the link between experiencing minority stress and developing poor health outcomes.

• Role of Mediators: The framework suggests that minority stressors do not always lead directly to health problems; instead, they often act through "mediating mechanisms" →

  • Self-Concept as a Mechanism:

    • Self-esteem: An individual's evaluation of their own sense of worth.

    • Sense of mastery: An individual's overall sense of control over their life and environment.

• Impact on Adolescence: The framework is particularly relevant for adolescents because this developmental period is characterized by heightened sensitivity to social evaluation and the formation of identity. Minority stressors specific to one's identity can deplete these self-concept factors, thereby contributing to depression.

What is Comprehensive Sexuality Education (SCE)?

• SCE is a curriculum-based process of teaching and learning about the cognitive, emotional, physical and social aspects of sexuality.

• It aims to equip children and young people with knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that will empower them to interact with the world.

• CSE always needs to respond to progressive insights and emerging evidence, as well as to relevant developments in technology and society.

• A distinction may be made between “conventional,” health-based programs and empowerment-directed, rights-based approaches.

  • The main goal of conventional CSE is the prevention of sexual risks and negative outcomes such as STIs) and unplanned pregnancies. Conventional CSE distinguishes itself from AOUM approaches in that it promotes all available strategies to sexual risk prevention. Next to abstinence, safe(r) sexual practices, particularly the use of condoms (and/or other forms of contraception) are encouraged.

  • A Rights-Based, Empowerment Approach: a positive approach to sexuality that accepts young people as sexual beings with sexual feelings and desires is more realistic and can bear much more fruit. CSE is thus required to go beyond education on risks, danger, and disease and be sex-positive and rights-based.

  • Rights-based, empowerment CSE aims to encourage non-sexist attitudes and behaviors in girls and boys and aims to empower them to achieve safe, consensual, egalitarian, mutually satisfying relationships and gender equality. This also highlights the relevance to include sexual coercion and violence, sexual consent, and ethical relations in (empowerment) CSE.

What is sexual health?

• Sexual risks

• Body image

• Knowledge

• Love and relationships

• Gender and sexual orientation

• Sexual behaviour

• Beliefs and emotions

Why is it crucial to include pleasure in sex education?

• Prevent sexual violence (learning to say yes helps to say no)

• Prevent negative experiences & pain during sex (for women)

• Increase condom use → by learning to communicate openly, positively and respectfully about sex, young people are better able to discuss sensitive topics such as condom use, and take care of each other’s health

• At a societal level, positive sex education contributes to a positive social climate at schools and to more gender equality and tolerance in society, by challenging strict gender norms, practices around victim blaming, sexual violence and LGBTI+ discrimination