KRS 354 Exam 3 Part 2

What is somatostatin

A hormone that inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon

Which cells produce somatostatin

Delta cells in the pancreatic islets

What is pancreatic polypeptide

A hormone that helps regulate pancreatic secretions and appetite

Which cells produce pancreatic polypeptide

F cells (gamma cells) in the pancreas

What is the primary role of insulin in metabolism

To promote storage of nutrients and lower blood glucose

What happens to glucose inside the cell after insulin allows entry

It is used for ATP production or stored as glycogen

What process converts glucose to glycogen

Glycogenesis

What organ primarily performs glycogenesis

Liver

What happens to excess glucose after glycogen stores are full

It is converted into fat

What process converts excess glucose into fat

Lipogenesis

What happens to amino acids when insulin is high

They are used for protein synthesis

What is the overall metabolic state when insulin is high

Anabolic state

What is an anabolic state

A state where the body builds and stores molecules

What is the overall metabolic state when glucagon is high

Catabolic state

What is a catabolic state

A state where the body breaks down molecules for energy

What happens to glycogen when glucagon is released

It is broken down into glucose

What process breaks down glycogen

Glycogenolysis

What happens to fat when glucagon is released

Fat is broken down into fatty acids

What process breaks down fat

Lipolysis

What happens to protein during prolonged fasting

Protein is broken down into amino acids

What process breaks down protein

Proteolysis

What is the main goal of glucagon

To maintain blood glucose during fasting

What is the main goal of insulin

To reduce blood glucose after eating

What is the fed state

The period after eating when insulin is dominant

What is the fasting state

The period without food when glucagon is dominant

What happens to blood glucose in the fed state

It increases

What hormone responds to increased blood glucose in the fed state

Insulin

What happens to blood glucose in the fasting state

It decreases

What hormone responds to decreased blood glucose in the fasting state

Glucagon

What is insulin resistance

A condition where cells do not respond effectively to insulin

What happens to glucose uptake during insulin resistance

It decreases

What happens to blood glucose during insulin resistance

It increases

What happens to insulin levels during early insulin resistance

They increase

Why does insulin increase during insulin resistance

To compensate for reduced effectiveness

What happens to pancreatic beta cells over time in Type 2 diabetes

They become dysfunctional

What is beta cell burnout

Loss of insulin-producing ability due to overwork

What happens when beta cells fail

Insulin production decreases

What is metabolic syndrome

A cluster of conditions increasing risk of heart disease and diabetes

What are components of metabolic syndrome

High blood glucose, high blood pressure, excess body fat, abnormal cholesterol

What is the relationship between metabolic syndrome and Type 2 diabetes

Metabolic syndrome increases risk of developing Type 2 diabetes

What is the role of exercise in glucose regulation

Increases glucose uptake independent of insulin

How does exercise improve insulin sensitivity

By making cells more responsive to insulin

What happens to glucose uptake during exercise

It increases

Why is exercise beneficial for diabetes

It lowers blood glucose and improves insulin sensitivity

What is the role of diet in glucose control

To regulate blood glucose levels and prevent spikes

What type of carbohydrates cause rapid glucose spikes

Simple carbohydrates

What type of carbohydrates provide stable glucose

Complex carbohydrates

What is fiber’s role in glucose regulation

Slows glucose absorption

What happens to blood glucose when fiber intake is high

It rises more slowly

What is the dawn phenomenon

An early morning rise in blood glucose due to hormone release

Which hormones contribute to the dawn phenomenon

Cortisol and growth hormone

Why do cortisol and growth hormone increase blood glucose

They promote glucose production

What is the stress response in endocrine terms

Activation of hormones that increase energy availability

Which glands are involved in the stress response

Adrenal glands

What hormone is released during acute stress

Epinephrine

What hormone is released during chronic stress

Cortisol

What does epinephrine do to blood glucose

Increases it rapidly

How does epinephrine increase blood glucose

Stimulates glycogenolysis

What does cortisol do to blood glucose

Increases it over time

How does cortisol affect protein

Increases protein breakdown

How does cortisol affect fat

Increases fat breakdown

Why is cortisol called a stress hormone

It helps provide energy during prolonged stress

What happens if cortisol levels stay high long term

Negative effects like muscle loss and high blood glucose

What is hormonal balance

Proper levels of hormones for normal body function

What happens when hormonal balance is disrupted

Diseases or dysfunction can occur

What is endocrine homeostasis

Stable hormone levels maintaining body function

What system works closely with the endocrine system

The nervous system

What is the neuroendocrine system

Integration of nervous and endocrine systems

What is the hypothalamus role in the neuroendocrine system

Acts as the link between nervous and endocrine systems

How does the hypothalamus control hormone release

By secreting releasing and inhibiting hormones

What is a releasing hormone

A hormone that stimulates another gland to release hormones

What is an inhibiting hormone

A hormone that prevents hormone release

What is feedback inhibition

A process where hormones reduce their own production

Why is feedback inhibition important

Prevents overproduction of hormones

What happens if feedback inhibition fails

Hormone imbalance occurs

What is hormone specificity

Only target cells respond to a specific hormone

What determines hormone specificity

Receptor presence on target cells

What happens if a cell lacks a receptor

It cannot respond to the hormone

What is receptor upregulation

Increase in receptor number

What is receptor downregulation

Decrease in receptor number

What happens during receptor downregulation

Reduced response to a hormone

What happens during receptor upregulation

Increased sensitivity to a hormone

What is hormone half-life

Time it takes for half the hormone to be removed from the blood

Which hormones have longer half-lives

Steroid hormones

Which hormones have shorter half-lives

Peptide hormones

Why do steroid hormones last longer

They are bound to carrier proteins

Why are peptide hormones short-lived

They are quickly degraded in blood

What is the endocrine system

A system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions

What is the main function of the endocrine system

To maintain homeostasis and regulate long-term processes such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction

How does the endocrine system communicate

Through hormones released into the bloodstream

What is a hormone

A chemical messenger that travels through the blood to target cells

What determines a hormone’s target cell

The presence of specific receptors for that hormone

What is the difference between endocrine and nervous system signaling

Endocrine signaling is slower and longer lasting while nervous signaling is rapid and short-lived

Why is endocrine signaling slower

Because hormones must travel through the bloodstream

Why are endocrine effects longer lasting

Because hormones remain in circulation longer and affect gene expression

What are the three main types of hormones

Peptide hormones, steroid hormones, and amine hormones

What are peptide hormones made of

Chains of amino acids

Are peptide hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic

Hydrophilic

Can peptide hormones cross the cell membrane

No

Where do peptide hormones bind

To receptors on the cell membrane