Personality and Motivation

Instincts

innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals that are triggered by specific stimuli, driving them to act in predictable ways.

Drive-Reduction Theory

behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal drives caused by physiological deficits, such as hunger or thirst, aiming to restore homeostasis.

Ghrelin

A hormone Produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Belongingness

the innate human desire to form and sustain close, meaningful relationships, which significantly drives behavior and affects emotional health.

Arousal Theory

individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness, seeking to increase alertness when it is too low and decrease it when it is too high, to enhance performance and well-being.

Yerks-Dodson Law

performance increases with physiological or mental arousal (alertness), but only up to a point; when levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

proposes that one's motivation is driven by the need for varied, novel, and intense experiences.

Thrill Seeking

a component of sensation-seeking theory, where individuals are motivated by the desire for intense and exciting experiences, often involving risk.

Adventure Seeking

component of sensation-seeking theory, where individuals are motivated by the desire for new and challenging experiences, often involving physical activities and exploration.

Disinhibition

refers to the tendency to seek out social and experiential thrills by engaging in behaviors that are typically restrained by social norms and inhibitions.

Borden Suscpetibility

refers to an individual's intolerance for repetitive or monotonous experiences, leading them to seek out new and stimulating activities to avoid boredom.

Incentive Theory

behavior is motivated by the desire for external rewards or incentives, which can include money, praise, or other tangible benefits.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory proposes that people are motivated by intrinsic (internal) motivations, such as personal growth and fulfillment, or extrinsic (external) motivations, such as rewards and recognition.

Intrinsic Motivation

refers to engaging in activities for their own sake, driven by internal rewards such as personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or a sense of achievement.

Extrinsic Motivation

engaging in behavior due to external rewards or pressures, such as money, grades, or approval from others.

Lewin’s Motivation Conflicts Theory

describes the psychological struggles individuals face when making decisions.

Approach-Approach Conflicts

occur when an individual must choose between two desirable options, leading to a conflict of which positive outcome to pursue

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts

occur when an individual must choose between two undesirable options, leading to a conflict of which negative outcome to avoid.

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

occur when an individual is drawn to and repelled by the same option, leading to a conflict between the desire for a positive outcome and the fear of a negative consequence.

Emotion

or affect, is a feeling that involves our thoughts, body reactions, and actions, and is influenced by what happens inside us and around us.

Elicitors

stimuli or events that trigger an emotional response in an individual.

Arousal Comes Before Emotion

suggests that emotions follow bodily arousal; we feel sad because we cry, and afraid because we tremble.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

suggests that facial expressions can influence emotions, meaning that smiling can make you feel happier and frowning can make you feel sadder.

Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously

arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently; an emotion-triggering stimulus causes both bodily arousal and emotional experience at the same time.

Arousal + Cognitive Lavel = Emotion

emotion is the result of physiological arousal and a cognitive label; our interpretation of arousal determines the specific emotion we experience.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

positive emotions help us think more openly and try new things, making us stronger. Negative emotions do the opposite, making us think narrowly and act less.

Universal Emotions

idea that certain emotional expressions are recognized and experienced similarly across different cultures.

Display Rules

cultural norms that dictate how, when, and where individuals should express emotions.

Psychodynamic Theory

suggests that personality is shaped by unconscious forces, internal conflicts, and defense mechanisms, originally developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasizing the influence of childhood experiences and unconscious drives.

Preconscious Mind

contains thoughts and feelings that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily accessed when needed.

Unconscious Mind

consists of processes and memories that are beyond conscious awareness and significantly influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Projective Tests

tools used by psychodynamic personality psychologists to assess personality by eliciting responses that reveal the contents of the preconscious and unconscious mind.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

unconscious strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and perceived threats.

Denial

an ego defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously refuses to acknowledge reality or facts, thereby protecting themselves from uncomfortable truths.

Displacement

an ego defense mechanism where emotional impulses are redirected from the original source to a safer or more acceptable substitute target.

Projection

an ego defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable feelings, thoughts, or motives to someone else, thus deflecting self-criticism.

Rationalization

an ego defense mechanism where individuals justify and explain their behaviors or feelings in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid confronting the true underlying reasons.

Reaction Formation

an ego defense mechanism where individuals suppress unacceptable impulses by unconsciously displaying the opposite behavior or emotion.

Regression

an ego defense mechanism where an individual reverts to earlier stages of development and childlike behaviors when faced with stress or emotional conflict.

Repression

an ego defense mechanism where distressing thoughts and feelings are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness.

Sublimation

an ego defense mechanism where negative urges and impulses are channeled into socially acceptable or constructive activities.

Humanistic Psychology

emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual, particularly focusing on self-growth and unconditional positive regard as essential for achieving personal potential.

Unconditional Regard

an individual is accepted and loved as they are, without any conditions or judgments, fostering personal growth and self-acceptance.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

refers to the innate drive in every individual to grow, develop, and realize their fullest potential

Social-Cognitive Theory

theory that emphasizes the influence of cognitive processes, behaviors, and context in understanding personality and human actions.

Reciprocal Determinism

concept in social-cognitive theory proposing that an individual's behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and emotions), and environment influence each other interactively.

Self-Concept

An individual's perception of themselves, encompassing self-awareness and the evaluation of their role in relation to others.

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one's own ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task, which plays a crucial role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.

Self-Esteem

A person's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth; it is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self.

Trait Theories

suggest that personality is made up of stable characteristics, called traits, that consistently influence how a person thinks and behaves.

Big Five Theory

identifies five broad dimensions of personality—Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism—that describe the main traits of human personality.

Personality Inventories

standardized tools used to assess and measure individual personality traits and characteristics through self-report questionnaires.

Factor Analysis

a statistical method used to identify clusters of related items (factors) in a set of data.

Openness to Experience

a personality trait that encompasses a person's imagination, curiosity, and willingness to engage with new ideas, experiences, and creative pursuits.

Conscientiousness

a personality trait marked by organization, dependability, discipline, and a goal-directed approach to life.

Extraversion

a personality trait characterized by high levels of sociability, energy, assertiveness, and a strong preference for social interaction and stimulation.

Agreeableness

a personality trait characterized by warmth, kindness, empathy, and a cooperative and trusting nature.

Emotional Stability

refers to the trait of having consistent emotional reactions, resilience, and the ability to remain calm and composed under stress.