AP PSYCH META QUIZLET

theory

a statement that attempts to explain why things are the way they are and happen the way they do

principle

a rule or law

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

empirical evidence

data drawn from experimentation as opposed to theory/opinion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

causation

indicates that one factor always causes a certain occurence

positive correlation

a relationship between variables in which both variables move in tandem

negative correlation

a relationship between variables in which they move in opposite directions

independent variable

the factor that researchers manipulate

dependent variable

the factor that depends on the independent variable

confounding variable

things other than the independent variable that may account for results

aim

the purpose of a study

target population

group whose behavior the researchers wish to investigate

procedure

step by step process used by the researcher to carry out the study

findings

state how the researcher interpreted the data

participants

people who take part in a psychological study

representative sample

group of participants representing the target population

opportunity/convenience sample

a sample of people who happen to be in the research environment and agree to participate

volunteer/self selected sample

a sample of people made up of volunteers

random sampling

every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

stratified sampling

draws random samples from each sub population within the target population

generalizing

results of a sample are assumed to be representative of the greater population

sampling bias

when a study may or may not generalize to the greater population based on the traits of the sample

informed consent

participants must be informed about the study and agree to participate

informed assent

a process that allows minors to agree to participate in research studies

debriefing

true aims and purpose revealed after study

right to withdraw

participants made aware of their right to withdraw at any time

confidentiality

all information confidential

protection from harm

no physical/psychological harm done to participants

deception

slight deception, that which brings no harm, is acceptable

experimenter bias

when the experimenter sees what they are looking for

double-blind control

when neither the participants nor the person carrying out the experiment know what the study is about

placebo effect

experimental effects caused by expectation alone

single blind control

participants do not know what the study is about

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

lab experiment

strict control of variables, easy to replicate but many lack ecological validity

survey

a questionnaire, data collection tool used to gather info on opinions or experiences

self report bias

when people report behaviors/attitudes/experiences innacurately

social desirability bias

people responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

experimental group

group that is exposed to the treatment (to one version of the independent variable)

control group

group that is not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

confederates

secret participants in research, who know the aim and are instructed to carry out specific behaviors during data collection

falsifiability

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

naturalistic observation

done in a natural environment, typically covert

case study

grounded in real life, the case study observes behavior of an individual or group

meta analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to 1)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables, the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

bar graph

presents categorical data with bars, heights/lengths are proportionate to the values they represent

pie chart

circular statistical graphic, divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportion

line graph

chart used to show how information changes over time

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each representing values of the two variables

mean

the mathematical average of a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

range

the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

framing

the way an issue is presented

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one could have foreseen it

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extend to other particpants/circumstances

peer review

a process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychoanalysis

freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

unconscious

according to freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, all of which we cannot access

id

a reservoir of psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive desires

ego

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality

superego

that part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement and for future aspirations

defense mechanisms

methods used to avoid recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety

repression

moving unwanted emotions form the conscious to the unconscious

rationalization

use of self-deception to justify unacceptable behavior

displacement

the transfer of an idea/impulse from a threatening object to a less threatening object

regression

returning to an earlier stage of development when under a great deal of stress

projection

seeing one’s own faults in others

reaction formation

acting contrary to genuine feelings

denial

refusing to accept reality

sublimation

channeling impulses into socially acceptable behavior

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

personality inventory

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors

extroversion vs introversion

talkativeness, assertiveness, activity vs silence, passivity, reserve

agreeableness vs antagonism

kindness, trust, warmth vs hostility, selfishness, distrust

conscientiousness vs impulsiveness

organization, thoroughness, reliability vs carelessness, negligence, unreliability

emotional stability vs neuroticism

reliability and coping ability vs nervousness, moodiness, sensitivity to negativity

openness to experience vs resistance to experience

imaginations, curiosity, creativity vs shallowness, lack of perceptiveness

self actualization

to fulfill one’s highest potential

unconditional positive regard

an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “who am i”

projective tests

personality tests that provide ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test, used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective tests, seeking to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of inkblots

thematic apperception test

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

social cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits and their social context; interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

self esteem

ones feelings of high or low self worth