An Intro to Psychology (CHAPTER 11 - KEY TERMS)

Cross Sectional Study

Compares different age groups at a single point in time to study age-related differences

Longitudinal Study

To study the same individuals over an extended period, ranging from months to decades

Germinal Stage

Sperm fertilizes the egg to create a zygote, the organism attaching itself to the mother's uterus (Week 0 to 2)

Embryonic Stage

Various life support systems develop as well as early versions of various organs (Week 2 to 8)

Fetal Stage

The eyes open at around 24 weeks, and around 28 weeks the fetus enters the 'age of viability', which means it is likely to survive outside the womb if born prematurely (Week 9 to Birth)

Myelination

The formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron

Teratogens

Any environmental agent that harms prenatal development, including diseases the mother has (ex. Syphilis, HIV, maternal stress, radiation, alcohol, etc.)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A developmental disorder, associated with various physical and neurological deficits, that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy

Habituation

A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus result in a gradual reduction in responding

Preferential Looking (As A Measure of Liking Something)

An experimental method in developmental psychology and cognitive science used to assess the cognitive abilities in babies (this is a criticism of Piaget)

Cephalocaudal Principle

The 'top-to-bottom' principle that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet

Proximodistal Principle

The 'inside-to-outside' principle that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the centre to the periphery

Jean Piaget

An early cognitive developmental theorist, who believed that babies come into the world as little scientists, testing out ideas about how the world works

Schema Creation

To form a new concept (ex. Learning what a dog is)

Assimilation

To add another experience to an existing schema (ex. Learning that any medium sized 4-legged creature is a dog)

Accommodation

Same as assimilation, but the concept must be changed to allow a new thing fit into the existing concept (ex. Learning that a chihuahua can also be a dog → Size difference)

Sensorimotor Stage

Kids primarily interact with the world with their sense and motor movement (ages 0 to 2)

Preoperational Stage

Early language capacities (ages 2 to 7)

Concrete Operational Stage

The stage in which conservation is mastered (ages 8 to 12)

Formal Operational Stage

People fully realize their inner scientist (age 12+)

Hypothetico-Deductive Thinking

To create a hypothesis to test if an idea is true (takes place during formal operational)

Object Permanence

Objects begin to exist even when not in existence, which occur during sensorimotor stage (begins at 8 months)

Preferential Looking (As A Measure of Being Surprised)

This method has been used to study what beliefs babies have, relying on the assumption that babies look longer when they are surprised

Egocentrism (a.k.a. 'No Theory of Mind')

To be unable to relate to and see the world through other people's eyes

Theory Of Mind

To be able to relate to and see the world through other people's eyes

Conservation

The understanding that amount stays the same even if shape or distribution changes (ages 6 to 8)

Lev Vygotsky

A developmental psychologist who emphasized cognitive development

Zone Of Proximal Development

Vygotsky coined this term, describing the set of tasks that a kid could either just barely do alone, or do with help

Cultural Tools

Lev Vygotsky's theory on culture giving people the language, symbols, numbers, writing systems, social rules, and technologies that shape their psychological understanding

Joint Attention

A child seeing an adult observing something and looking the same direction, due to interest

Over-Imitation

A human-specific phenomenon where children (and adults) reproduce all actions demonstrated by a model, including those clearly irrelevant to achieving a goal

Social Referencing

A child looks at the mother before fully indulging in a new activity to ensure it is acceptable

Konrad Lorenz

A biologist who discovered imprinting

Imprinting

A baby animal that sees the most something within the first 2 days of life, are the things they become attached to most

Attachment

How children bond with caregivers and parents

Harry Harlow

An American psychologist who theorized that cuddliness and attachment are prioritized over rewarding enforcements

Mary Ainsworth

John Bolbie's student who conducted a test on a 'strange situation and attachment'

Temperament

Inborn emotional and behavioural tendency

Strange Situation Test

Mary Ainsworth's 1970s test to observe attachment security in babies by having a parent leave the room and come back to see the baby's reaction

Ainsworth's Model of Children's Attachment Styles

Characteristic patterns of reacting to the presence and absence of one's primary caregiver

Secure

Baby is sad when mother leave, happy when the mother returns

Ambivalent

Baby is very sad when mother leaves, not happy when mother returns

Avoidant

Baby does not care when mother leaves and does not care when mother returns

Disoriented

Disorganized or contradictory reactions

Easy

Babies are relaxed and have a positive influence

Difficult

Babies are easily agitated and have a negative influence

Slow-To-Warm-Up

Babies start off somewhat difficult but move towards being easy

Internal Working Model

A set of beliefs about the way relationships work

Two-Dimensional Model of Adult Attachment Styles

Building on Ainsworth's ideas, current scales of attachment style (used for adults) have two dimensions (anxiety vs. avoidance)

Secure

Low anxiety, low avoidance

Preoccupied

High anxiety, low avoidance

Dismissive

Low anxiety, high avoidance

Fearful

High anxiety, high avoidance

Lawrence Kohlberg

An early, important researcher discovering how moral judgements change over time

Pre-Conventional Morality

Actual or anticipated punishment and rewards, rather than internalized values (ages 9 and under)

Conventional Morality

Conformity to the expectations of social groups; person adopts other people's values (ages 10 to 15)

Post-Conventional Morality

Moral principles that are well thought out and part of one's belief and value system (ages 16 and over)

Adolescence

The period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (ages 11 to 14) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (ages 18 to 21)

Puberty

Bodily changes initiated by the hypothalamus telling the pituitary gland to secrete hormones

Primary Sex Characteristics

Physical characteristics that directly relate to reproduction (sex organs)

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical characteristics that differ between boys and girls, but that are not directly related to reproduction (ex. breasts in girls and muscle mass in boys)

Adolescent Brain Development

A rapid but uneven process of brain change from ages 10 to 25, when thinking develops from concrete ideas to more complex, abstract reasoning

Heritability Of Sexual Orientation

1. In twin studies, sexual orientation is more heritable in identical twins (50% chance) than fraternal twins 2. The amount of testosterone a fetus is exposed to in the womb, which correlates to a woman having a longer ring finger than index finger (same as men) instead of them being even

Gay Uncle Theory

Genes which predispose men towards homosexuality also predispose them towards caring more for their nieces and nephews (controversially, kin selection can allow genes to be passed on)

Female Relatives Theory

There could be genes which increase the procreation of the female relatives of male homosexuals (they could be genes which increase sexual desire for men enough to counterbalance the decreased rate of reproduction among male homosexuals)

Female Alloparenting Theory

A theory where female-female attraction is a back-up strategy. If the man is dead or takes off, 2 females can pair-bond and help raise each other's children, proving that women are more flexible in terms of attraction. Straight women are physiologically aroused by erotic pictures of men and women, while straight men only respond to women

Erik Erikson

A psychologist characterized each stage of life by the major task confronting the individual at that stage

Trust VS. Mistrust

If mother is response to a child's needs, the baby goes down the good path of reliance; if not, the baby goes through the bad path (ages 0 to 1)

Autonomy VS. Shame and Doubt

If mother is able to potty train the baby, the baby goes down the autonomy path; if not, the baby goes through the shame and doubt path (ages 1 to 2)

Initiative VS. Guilt

If mother is able to let the child explore, the child goes down the initiative path; if not, the child goes through the guilt path (ages 3 to 5)

Industry VS. Inferiority

If mother is able to build confidence, motivation, and take pride in the child, the child goes down the industry path; if not, the child will go down the inferiority path (ages 6 to 12)

Identity VS. Role Confusion

If a person can understand their internal self, the person goes down the identity path; if not, the person goes through the role confusion path (ages 12 to 20)

Identity Diffusion

A process in which individuals initially learn a behaviour by observing another individual perform that behaviour; they themselves then become models from which other individuals learn the behaviour

Foreclosure

A process where an individual adopts a particular identity, belief system, or life path without engaging in meaningful exploration or self-reflection (roles, values, or goals set by parents, peers, or society rather than personal choice)

Moratorium

A person is unsure of who they are, figuring out values (identity crisis)

Identity Achievement

Successfully found an individual's identity

Intimacy VS. Isolation

If a person develops close friendships and a romantic relationship, the person goes down the intimacy path; if not, the person goes down the isolation path (ages 20 to 40)

Generativity VS. Stagnation

If the person is a productive member of society (stable job and family), the person goes down the generativity path; if not, the person goes down the stagnation path (ages 40 to 65)

Integrity VS. Despair

If a person feels to have lived a good life, the person goes down the integrity path; if not, the person goes down the despair path (ages 65 to death)

Adolescent Egocentrism

To believe you are unique and important and that everyone is watching you

Adulthood

The stage of development that begins around 18 to 21 years old and lasts until death

Authoritative Parenting

High in love, high in strictness, associating the best outcomes in the children (ex. "X is not okay because…")

Authoritarian Parenting

Low in love, high in strictness (ex. "I am the dad")

Permissive Parenting

High in love, low in strictness (ex. "Love you. Do whatever you want")

Neglectful Parenting

Low in love, low in strictness, worst type (ex. Not nice and no boundaries)

Age-Related Changes in Cognitive Performance

The natural decline in specific mental processes, primarily processing speed, working memory, and executive function, starting as early as in the 30s

U-Curve for Happiness and Relationship Satisfaction

A psychological and economic theory proposing that human life satisfaction and happiness tend to follow a 'U-shape' over the lifespan (peaks at beginning and end)

Denial

Not accepting the truth

Anger

Being mad about the truth

Bargaining

Trying to change the truth

Depression

Grieving/being sad about the truth

Acceptance

Having peace with the truth (controversial theory)

What are the 5 Baby Reflexes?

Rooting, Sucking, Grasping, Moro, and Babinski

What are the 3 Types of Temperament?

Easy, Difficult, and Slow-to-Warm-Up

What are the 3 Evolutionary Theories of Homosexual Attraction?

Gay Uncle Theory, Female Relatives Theory, and Female Alloparenting Theory

What are the 4 Stages of Identity vs. Role Diffusion?

Identity Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement

What are the 5 Stages of Grief?

Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, and Acceptance