Unit 2 AP Psychology

Perception

The way we recognize and interpret our sensations

Bottom-up processing

Processing from raw data, never learned befor

Top-down processing

Processing with data from the brain’s experiences

Schema

An organized unit of knowledge for a subject/event from past experience

Figure-ground

Separating an object from its background

Proximity

We tend to group objects that are closer together

Similarity

Similar items are grouped together

Symmetry

We tend to perceive forms that make mirror images

Closure

We tend to fill in gaps to perceive complete forms

Continuity

We tend to view patterns as continuous rather than abrupt breaks

Law of Pragnanz

We tend to see objects in their simplest forms

Feature detector approach

Organisms use feature detection to anticipate objects that demand immediate attention

Gestalt approach

The idea that human’s perception of objects are as whole parts (Gestalts)

Attention

The processing (focussing) through cognition of the massive amount of information from our senses

Selective attention

Focusing on one thing while avoiding another

Cocktail party phenomenon

The ability to switch from one conversation to a conversation you’re not a part of

Figure-ground

The brain tends to separate an object from the ground to make sense of the object

Divided attention

Multitasking, focusing on multiple tasks at once

Binocular depth cues

The type of cues that rely on both eyes viewing an image

Monocular depth cues

Qualities of a visual where you can tell how far an object is with one eye

Motion detection

We perceive motion through 1. one records the changing position of the object 2. the other tracks how our heads follow the stimulus

Concept

The way of grouping and classifying the world around us

Prototype

The envisionment of a concept in our brain

Algorithms

Systematic and mechanical approaches that will guarantee an eventual answer to a problem

Heuristic

Intuitive rules that can help or not solve well-structured problems

Availability heuristics

A conclusion is drawn from events that come easy to mind

Representative heuristic

We judge objects and events on how they represent the prototype of their object/event

Confirmation bias

The search for information that supports a particular bias

Hindsight bias

The tendancy after to fact to think you knew what the outcome would be

Gambler’s fallacy

A certain event is more or less likely based on a series of events (not true, independent events)

Sunk cost fallacy

People will continue to do something even when abandoning it would be more beneficial because they spent time, energy, effort

Executive function

Cognitive processes that allow people to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors

Memory

All the processes involved in processing, storing, and retrieving info we can experience

Explicit memory

A memory a person can consciously consider and retrieve, such as episodic and semantic memory

Episodic memory

Our memory for events that we have experienced

Semantic memory

Memory that comprises of facts, figures, and general world knowledge

Implicit memory

Memory that is beyond conscious consideration and would require procedural memory

Procedural memory

Memory that consists of skills and habits. They are stored out of the cortex and are less likely to be lost

Prospective memory

Remembering something that one has to do in the future

Retrospective memory

Remembering the past

Short-term/working memory

Memory that lasts 30 seconds. Our brains are actively manipulating sensory data into immediate use

Iconic information

Visual sensory information

Echoic information

Auditory sensory information

Chunking

Grouping items of information is easier than memorizing the information linearly

Serial position effect

We tend to remember the primacy (first items) longer than recency (last items)

Long-term memory

A gigantic network of interrelated information that is capable of permanent retention

Mneumonic device

A device that compresses information into a format that is easier to remember

Levels of processing model

Model that suggests the way people encodes information influences the ability to recall it. Recognition memory is superficial: names, faces, voices, patterns; Recognition memory: strategy behind multiple choice tests; Recall memory: deeper level processing and strategy behind essays

Dual-coding hypothesis

It is easier to remember words with associated images

Context-dependent memory

A subject is more likely to remember information in a similar situation where it was encoded

State-dependent memory

Information memorized in a certain state of mind is better recalled then

Framing

Repeated suggestions and misleading questions can create false memories

Misinformation effect

Memories of an event may be distorted when consistent false information is introduced after an event

Intelligence

Goal-directive adaptive thinking

General intelligence

g factor, introduced by Charles Spearman and was the basis for all other intelligence scores

IQ

Intelligence Quotient, measured by mental age divided by physical age

Standardization

A group of people that represent the larger population

Reliability

How consistent a test is in what it measures

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it’s intended to measure