Issues and Debates

Outline what is meant by cultural relativism. (2 marks)

The idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood/only has meaning/only makes sense in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs.

Suggest two ways in which researchers might reduce cultural bias in their research. (2 marks)

• do not attempt to extrapolate findings/theories to cultures that are not represented in the research sample

• use researchers who are native to/familiar with/immersed in the culture being investigated

• carry out cross-cultural research rather than research with a sole culture

• do not assume universal norms/standards across different cultures

• be sensitive to cultural norms/standards when designing research/when reporting findings

• study single culture to understand that culture (emic approach)

• taking a reflexive approach ie constantly reflecting on own biases when carrying out research

What is meant by ethnocentrism in psychology? (2 marks)

• judging other cultures according to the norms/standard/values of one’s own culture

• at the extreme, believing in the superiority of one’s own culture

examples of ethnocentrism including brief explanation of why/how this illustrates ethnocentrism

Outline two limitations of ethnocentrism (4 marks)

• can lead to prejudice against other ethnic groups/out groups

• can lead to discrimination against other ethnic groups/out groups

• assumes members of an ethnic group are all the same/negates individual differences

• in psychology, has led to the adoption of a ‘Western norm’ which would then devalue other cultures

• findings from ethnocentric research should not be generalised to other cultures as only one culture has been studied – lack of validity

Discuss one or more ethical implications of research in psychology. Refer to at least one topic you have studied in psychology in your answer. (8 marks)

Marks for this question: AO1 = 3 and AO2 = 2 and AO3 = 3

Possible content:

• effects of research on participants

• effects of publication on wider public

• potential use of the findings, eg allocation of resources

• potential use of the findings, eg political consequences – changes in legislation

• potential bias against people of certain cultures/socioeconomic backgrounds

• potential influence on moral attitudes towards individual/social and ethnic groups

• economic implications, eg for further psychological research, eg funding etc

• description of relevant evidence.

Possible applications to topic:

• Milgram’s obedience research and attitudes to people of different nationalities

• Bowlby’s research and the effects on child-rearing/working mothers

• diagnosis of depression, schizophrenia, etc

• labelling, eg gender identity

• biological research into addiction/aggression/offending – issue of who is to blame, eg if offending/aggression/addiction is inherited

• implications of relationship counselling based on research into relationships

Possible discussion points:

• use of evidence to explain/elaborate/analyse the implications

• how researchers have dealt with the implications

• cost/benefit discussion, eg consideration of whether the benefits of publication outweigh the costs

• short-term cost (at time of publication) versus long-term gain (in years to come and for future generations)

• issues of reflexivity - the influential position of the researcher and researcher responsibility.

Outline what is meant by soft determinism. (2 marks)

• the idea that behaviour are to an extent dictated by internal/external forces

• despite this, we still have some element of control over/some free will to control our behaviour

Using an example of a research study you have learned about in psychology, outline what is meant by a nomothetic approach to psychological investigation.

• a nomothetic approach involves studying a (large) sample of participants

• using the findings to generate or substantiate general laws/models of behaviour; make inferences about the wider population/make generalisations; make predictions

• Milgram tested a sample of participants to propose his theory of situational obedience

• Ainsworth tested infants using the Strange Situation to propose three attachment types

There are many examples of socially sensitive research in psychology. Outline what social sensitivity means in the context of psychology. Explain how researchers in psychology could deal with issues related to social sensitivity. (8 marks)

Possible content:

• research which has potential implications or consequences, eg leading to prejudice and discrimination

• where a group of people represented in the research might be negatively affected as a result of a study, eg women affected by Bowlby’s work on attachment

• where a study leads to changes in public policy affecting individuals/groups, eg research into IQ in the 1950s leading to educational changes

Possible explanation points:

• submit research proposals to ethics committees and abide by any recommendations

• weigh up the possible costs and benefits before conducting any research. Only proceed where the benefits (to many) outweigh the costs (to a few)

• take care when formulating the aim/framing the question so as not to misrepresent certain groups

• be alert to the possibility of misuse of findings and take steps to present findings in a value-free way

• consider the wider effects of publication of the findings eg Sieber and Stanley's recommendations as part of the peer review process

• take steps to avoid prejudicial/biased/sensational media presentation of findings

• consider the possible reactions of participants to any research procedure they experience and take account of ethical issues in the design of any studies