Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Review

Flashcards covering the organization, systems, cellular biology, and primary organ systems (Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, and Endocrine) of the human body for exam preparation.

Chemical Level

Level of organization involving atoms and molecules like water and glucose.

Cellular Level

The smallest unit of life, such as a muscle cell.

Tissue Level

A group of similar cells working together, such as muscle tissue.

Organ Level

Different tissues working together to perform a function, such as the heart.

System Level

Organs working together, such as the cardiovascular system.

Organism

The entire human body representing the highest level of organization.

Integumentary System

Provides protection and temperature regulation; شامل includes skin, hair, and nails.

Skeletal System

Provides support, protection, and is involved in blood cell production.

Muscular System

Responsible for movement and heat production.

Nervous System

Facilitates rapid communication and control.

Endocrine System

Involved in hormone regulation and long-term control.

Cardiovascular System

Transports blood, nutrients, and gases throughout the body.

Lymphatic System

Responsible for immune defense and fluid balance.

Respiratory System

Facilitates gas exchange ($O_2$/$CO_2$).

Digestive System

Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.

Urinary System

Removes waste and regulates fluids.

Reproductive System

Responsible for producing offspring.

Phospholipid bilayer

The structure of the cell membrane consisting of hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward.

Selectively permeable

A property of the cell membrane that allows it to control what enters and leaves the cell.

Cytoplasm

Gel-like fluid inside the cell containing organelles and supporting cell processes.

Ribosomes

Organelles responsible for protein synthesis.

Rough ER

Endoplasmic reticulum responsible for protein production.

Smooth ER

Endoplasmic reticulum responsible for lipid production and detoxification.

Golgi complex

Modifies and packages proteins.

Lysosomes

Responsible for digestion and waste removal within the cell.

Mitochondria

Produces ATP (energy) for the cell.

Passive transport

Cell transport requiring no ATP, including diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Active transport

Cell transport requiring ATP to move substances against a gradient, often using protein pumps.

Nucleus

Storehouse of DNA that controls cell activities; components include the nuclear membrane, nucleolus, and chromatin.

Mitosis

Cell division resulting in $2$ identical diploid cells for growth and repair.

Meiosis

Cell division resulting in $4$ non-identical haploid cells for gamete production.

Somatic cells

Diploids body cells, such as muscle cells, neurons, and skin cells.

Germ cells

Reproductive cells that are haploid, specifically sperm and egg (ovum).

Epithelial tissue

Tissue that covers surfaces and lines cavities for protection, absorption, and secretion.

Connective tissue

Tissue that supports and connects; includes bone, cartilage, blood, and fat.

Muscle tissue

Contractile tissue categorized into skeletal (voluntary), smooth (organs), and cardiac (heart).

Anatomical position

Standing upright, facing forward, with arms at sides and palms forward.

Axial region

Represents the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular region

Represents the limbs.

Sagittal plane

An anatomical plane dividing the body into left and right.

Frontal plane

An anatomical plane dividing the body into front and back.

Transverse plane

An anatomical plane dividing the body into top and bottom.

Dorsal cavity

Contains the cranial and spinal cavities.

Ventral cavity

Contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Homeostasis

Maintaining internal balance, such as body temperature regulation.

Negative feedback

A mechanism that opposes change to maintain balance, such as temperature regulation.

Positive feedback

A mechanism that amplifies change, such as during childbirth.

Epidermis

The avascular outer layer of the skin made of keratinized epithelial cells.

Dermis

The inner layer of skin containing blood vessels, nerves, glands, and dense connective tissue.

Melanin

The primary pigment contributing to skin color.

Keratinocytes

Epidermal cells that produce keratin.

Melanocytes

Epidermal cells that produce melanin.

Langerhans cells

Epidermal cells involved in immune defense.

Merkel cells

Epidermal cells serving as touch receptors.

Stratum basale

The deepest layer of the epidermis where cell division occurs.

Stratum lucidum

An epidermal layer found only in thick skin.

Stratum corneum

The superficial layer of the epidermis consisting of dead keratinized cells.

Sebaceous glands

Glands that secrete oil to lubricate skin and hair.

Sweat glands

Glands responsible for temperature regulation.

Arrector pili

Muscles that contract to make hair stand up (goosebumps) in response to cold.

Osteoblasts

Bone cells that build bone by secreting bone matrix.

Osteoclasts

Large multinucleated cells that break down or resorb bone.

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells that maintain bone tissue.

Osteogenic cells

Stem cells found in the periosteum and endosteum that differentiate into osteoblasts.

Compact bone

Dense, strong outer layer of bone organized into osteons.

Spongy bone

Porous, trabecular bone found inside bones containing red marrow.

Trabeculae

Lattice-like network in spongy bone providing lightweight support.

Diaphysis

The shaft of a long bone.

Epiphysis

The ends of a long bone.

Periosteum

The outer fibrous covering of bone important for growth and repair.

Endosteum

The inner lining of bone containing osteogenic cells.

Synovial joints

Freely movable (diarthrotic) joints.

Abduction

Movement away from the midline.

Adduction

Movement toward the midline.

Sarcomere

The functional unit of skeletal muscle contraction.

Actin

The thin filaments in a muscle fiber.

Myosin

The thick filaments that pull actin to cause contraction.

Tropomyosin

Protein that blocks binding sites on actin.

Troponin

Protein that moves tropomyosin when $Ca^{2+}$ binds.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

The neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction to trigger muscle contraction.

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system providing voluntary control over skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system providing involuntary control.

Sympathetic nervous system

The 'fight or flight' division of the autonomic nervous system.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The 'rest and digest' division of the autonomic nervous system.

Astrocytes

Glial cells that support neurons and form the blood-brain barrier.

Oligodendrocytes

Glial cells that form myelin in the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Schwann cells

Glial cells that form myelin in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Cerebrum

Part of the brain responsible for thinking and voluntary movement.

Cerebellum

Part of the brain responsible for balance and coordination.

Medulla oblongata

Part of the brainstem controlling heart rate and blood pressure.

Meninges

The protective layers of the brain: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

Action potential

An all-or-none electrical signal in a neuron involving depolarization and repolarization.

Depolarization

Phase of an action potential where $Na^+$ enters the cell.

Repolarization

Phase of an action potential where $K^+$ leaves the cell.

Endocrine glands

Ductless glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Exocrine glands

Glands that use ducts to secrete substances onto surfaces or into cavities.

Insulin

Hormone produced by the pancreas that lowers blood glucose.

Glucagon

Hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood glucose.

Ischium

The hip bone that holds the most body weight when sitting.

Pineal gland

Gland that releases melatonin and controls the sleep cycle.