Britains role in the world 1951-1997

Korea - skilful handling

• shows the UN would take part in defending independent states

• helped check communist aggression

• demonstrated loyalty to the USA

• establishing the UN as an effective agency and giving it credibility a Britain was a founding member

• NATO as a permanent military bureaucracy which tied the US even close to Europe

Korea - poor handling

• ended in a stalemate

• increased defence expenditure which added difficulties to Britains economy - still struggling from ww2

• British and commonwealth contributions of forces dwarfed by American commitment - most troops American despite Britains influence to invade the North

Suez - skilful handling

• British troops had advanced successfully, being able to secure key strategic points along the canal until they were withdrawn

Suez - poor handling

• secret conspiracy with Israel and France made Britain look dishonest

• used its veto in the UN security council to prevent calls for ceasefire and withdrawal

• Nasser blocking the canal caused hardships and fuel shortages across Europe

• misread attitudes of the USA - Eisenhower was furious with Eden and swore down the phone

• USA could no longer criticise the USSRs crushing of the Hungary uprising due to Britains and Frances use of force

• Britain was forced to withdraw in order to get economic aid from the USA

Kuwait - skilful handling

• successfully liberated Kuwait

• strengthen Anglo-American relations

• British armed forces played a significant role in supporting USA initiatives - RAF planes, 53000 troops

• Major demonstrated that Britain still had diplomatic influence - enlisting us and European support for his plan to create a safe haven for Kurds which was guarded by allied troops protected by allied aircraft, enforcing a ‘no-fly’ zone

Kuwait - poor handling

• seen as British and American imperialism despite coalition with Arab states

• Thatcher wanted to act immediately while Bush wanted to take time for coalitions and diplomatic pressure

• Hussein allowed to maintain control of Iraq, persecuted Kurds and enemies - continued to be a problem until 2003, controversy over joint action over Husseins removal

The Falklands war - skilful handling

• gained European support - EC sanctions on Argentina

• can be argued it stopped the view of Britain as a nation in retreat and renewed image of Britain as a great power

• gained UN Security Council support in demanding Argentine forces, giving legal justification for military action

• British action avoided possibility of a long drawn out UN-led move

• Although US made effort to mediate and avoid war, still supported Britain enough to be successful, partly due to the strong alliance between Thatcher and Reagan at a time of high Cold War tension

• Thatcher acted decisively and with resolve - kept nerve during fighting in May-June 1982 despite some painful losses such as the sinking of HMS Sheffield, losing 20 men

• task force dispatched within 4 days of invasion

The Falklands War - poor handling

• can be argued Britains success was due to lack - numerous Argentine missiles, which could have caused greater losses, had fuses which did not work properly

• can be argued it was a costly enterprise of little real significance - repairs and defence costs in the mid 1980s were estimated at £1.5m per islander

• sinking of Argentine warship general Beltran, which resulted in 360 deaths, was controversial act as it was outside the exclusion zone and sailing away at the time

The UN charter

1. maintain international peace and security

2. prevention of aggression

3. peaceful settlement of international disputes

4. addressing economic, social and cultural problems

5. promotion of human rights, fundamental freedoms for all without distinction or discrimination as to ethnicity, gender, language and religion

Britains role in the UN

• one of the big 3 victorious powers at the end of WW2

• played a key role in establishing the UN, helped draw up the UN charter which is strongly influenced by the democratic values of the western powers

• one of 5 permanent members of the security council, has the right to veto over security council decisions that are otherwise binding on all members - considerable power and influence

Influence of UN membership on British policy

• important to present to be conforming to the charter

• global media coverage increased in speed and intensity, becoming more important than ever for Britain to gain UN backing to ensure support of other nations and domestic public opinion

• western members dominated the UN during the 1950s, once Europes colonial empire broke, majority of nations outside of Europe

Criticism from the UN on Britain

• while Britain retained its colonial empire, the government found themselves criticised as imperialist and in violation of 5. - the taint of white imperialism was hard to escape from despite granting independence during the 1970s and 80s - kuwait

• Britain has used its veto sparingly but often laid the to accusations of imperialism - vetoed 6 security council resolutions on Rhodesia as Afro-asian nations accused Britain of supporting white supremacy, first used its veto during the Suez crisis being accused of trying to re-establish colonial power in Egypt, in 1984, Thatcher supported the US in vetoing the resolution criticising the US bombing of Libya

in favour of British nuclear deterrent - defence of Europe

• 1980s

• 1979-87, NATO missiles stationed at British airbase in response to an increased Soviet threat

• Thatcher advised Reagan against reducing US nuclear arsenal too far in treaty with the USSR

in favour of British nuclear deterrent - lack of US reliability

• fear that the US might not defend Europe from Soviet attack

• Britain needed to appear strong to prevent Soviet aggression

in favour of British nuclear deterrent - safety and status

• making Britain and the world safer and the possession of an independent nuclear deterrent maintains Britains great power status

• 1960s/70s

• Britain was a world power with some influence over treaties in 1963 and 1968, limiting nuclear testing and sharing nuclear weapon technology with other countries

against the British nuclear deterrent - an immoral threat

• 1950s/60s, CND formed and held annual protests marches from Aldermaston to Trafalgar Square - 100,000 marched in 1960

• 1980s, built up of missiles from the USSR and USA threatened to turn Europe into a nuclear battleground - women campaigned in protest outside the air base at Greenham Common, a symbol of protest against nuclear weapon testing lasting 19 years

against the British nuclear deterrent - irrelevant and costly

• virtually irrelevant when measured against the size of American and Russian nuclear arsenals

• despite treaties, nuclear arsenals of the use and ussr grew by the late 1960s to dwarf Britains - its influence so small that it had no real influence on the salt treaties which limited weapons in 1972 and 1979

• heavy costs maintaining it came at the expense of government investment in other areas such as heath, education and conventional form of defense

against the British nuclear deterrent - Dependence on America

• from 1962, Britain made a deal with the us to use its Polaris missiles to deliver warheads

• 1990s onwards

• after the collapse of the ussr in 1991, nuclear threat and tension in Europe decreased - USA and Russia had significantly reduced their stockpile of weapons

• nevertheless, both retained nuclear arsenals that were more powerful than Britains - Britain retained fewer than 20 weapons and 4 submarines, though normally dependent on US Trident missiles to deliver them, the cost of renewing Trident is still a current issue

why did Britain grant independence to its colonies

• the impact of ww2 exposed difficulties of maintaining control over colonies such as France and Vietnam and the independence of India and Pakistan paved the way for other colonies to gain independence

• influence of the USA as the US opposed British imperialism, and had just fought a war against dictatorship and oppression but wanted to slow down the process in case of the spread of communism

• encouraged by a spirit of freedom led nationalist leaders emerged calling for independence

• Britain was left economically weak and could no longer afford to maintain an empire, which was draining resources - at the end of the war, Britain owed India £1200m

Kenya gained independence in 1963

• 1952-1956, kikuyu people ran Mau Mau guerrilla campaign which resulted in 4 long years of bitter fighting and 14000 deaths over ethnic divisions over unequal resources

• macmillan realised the nationalism was too strong to resist by brutal methods

• problems remain because of difference in wealth and power imbalance of racial groups creating instability

malaya (Malaysia) gained independence in 1957

• ethnically diverse population made handing over power contentious

• 1948-1960 a Malayan Chinese communist uprising occurred, requiring 40,000 commonwealth and British troops to stop it, resulting in violence

• in 1957, the new government was headed by a conservative, anti-communist malaya - good relations with Britain and having a stable, moderate government

southern Rhodesia

• gained independence in 1965 under a white only government led by Ian Smith which did not represent the large black majority

• Britain faced pressure and criticism to act from the commonwealth and the UN whether to not to intervene, with independent colonies leading the criticism

• after economic sanctions had little effect, Wilson took a risk personally negotiating with Smith, but was not accepted and angered the commonwealth back majority colonies as they felt Wilson was being too lenient

• became independent again as Zimbabwe in 1980, more because of pressure from the US and Africa taker than British influence

• ethnic tension between black majority and white minority played a part in the unstable government of Zimbabwe under Mugabe

commonwealth

• biggest tie is historical association though some have none such as Mozambique and Cameroon

• queen Elizabeth ii as the head of the commonwealth helped maintain the association by giving it personal leadership

1971 singapore declaration

• condemned racial prejudice and emphasised commitment to democratic values, international peace and freedom

• these principles were formally adapted in the Commonwealth Charter in 2012

• in 1995-1999, Nigerias membership suspended for violating them

commonwealth - south africa

• under the apartheid regime, members criticised Britains economic ties with South Africa during the 1960s and 70s and left the Commonwealth in 1961, rather than face criticism for its Apartheid policies from other members

• thatcher had felt herself isolated fir refusing to impose sanctions on the Apartheid Regime

• 1999, one month after being elected, the Mandela government decided to rejoin, suggesting the Commonwealth remained a viable institution

commonwealth crises - Rhodesia, Suez, Europe and immigration

• During the Rhodesian crisis, commonwealth unity threatened

• During the 1956 Suez crisis, created tension between those supporting Britain - n.zealand, s.africa, Canada, Australia

• by joining the EEC, Britain sacrificed its preferential trade links with its commonwealth members such as N.Zealand lamb

• the commonwealth 1962 immigration act was particularly resented by black nations as it was clearly designed to limit black immigration into Britain

schuman plan 1950

• the Schumann plan set out proposals for a coal and steel community that would integrate French and German industry

• this would promote rapid reconstruction and bring together historic enemies

Messina conference 1955

• agreements were developed in the messianic conference and the treaty of Rome launched the EEC without Britain in 1957

• British delegation was present but encouraged not to join

reasons for Britain not initially joining the EEC

• few politicians and journalists in favour of Britain having a leading role in the EEC

• hoped the commonwealth would be a stronger trading bloc

• did not believe France and Germany could overcome centuries of hostility to make the EEC a success

• the EEC was for countries who were more badly affected by the war, in comparison, Britain had ‘won’ the war

reasons for Britain not initially joining the EEC - domestic divisions

• the left tended to be suspicious of free market principles behind the Common market - labour political, Morrison responded ‘the durham miners won’t wear it i’m afraid’, due to the threat of competition

• the right tend to regard the preservation of traditional trade links of more importance than those in Europe such as with the Commonwealth

changing attitudes towards the EEC

• took lead in forming EFTA but was only moderately successful but not able to match the success of the EEC

• rapid expansion of the economy could already very well seen in the EEC

• belief that Britains imperial power had been shaken by Suez and decolonisation

• USA was also keen to see Britain join the EEC as it saw Britain as a vital link between America and Europe

economic hopes of joining the EEC

• boost industrial production for a large scale export market

• increase industrial efficiency and greater competition

• stimulating economic growth

apprehension of joining the EEC

• wanted to keep its economic relations with the commonwealth and the US

• EEC was already had developed and detailed economic structures, especially the common agricultural policy which Britain found hard to conform to

• negotiations with the EEC were extremely complex and difficult - special exemptions for Commonwealth trade partners such as N.Zealand lamb, which would have been blocked by the EEC rules, to be sought out

• many months of hard bargaining led by Heath

Gaulles veto

• macmillan government submitted an application in 1961

• negotiations seemed to have reached a successful conclusion in January 1963

• last minute, French president de Gaulle exercised Frances right to veto and blocked Britains application

relationship with Europe - relationship with the commonwealth

• did not join the EEC as it would disrupt trade links and would mean tariffs from countries outside the EEC, damaging trade

• by joining the EFTA in 1959, allowed Britain to maintain free trade with its former colonies

• during the 1960s, Britain experienced decolonisation and the decline of empire post-suez and started negotiating concessions over trade with the commonwealth

• when Britain joined the EEC in 1973, meant bringing trade tariffs with its commonwealth partners

relationship with Europe - relationship with the USA

• not joining the EEC due to the belief that their relationship with the USA would be best serviced outside of Europe - concentrating on dealing with the USA alone

• wanted Britain to join the EEC to connect America and Europe but also to create a more unified Europe to stop aggression from the USSR during the cold war

• as Britain lost its empire, can’t rely on its relationships

relationship with Europe - Britains economy

• did not join the EEC due to worries that cheap goods coming from Europe would cause unemployment in Britain

• the EFTA was compromise with a less powerful group of countries and Britains economic problems had not been fully apparent behind the 1950s prosperity boom

• by the 1960s, the EFTA lacklustre performance and the strong economic growth seen for EEC countries - Germany 5%+ and Britain 2.3% - led to Britain attempting to join the EEC

• joined the EEC wanting economic success

• Pro-Europeans argued that Common regulation benefitted all members as being apart of the worlds largest market

• in 1980, Thatchers rebate believing the UK contributed to much to the EEC ‘I want my money back’ - successful after 4 years but damaged relations

• withdrawal from the ERM was humiliating but subsequent economic recovery showed the Britain did not need the EEC

relationship with Europe - national sovereignty

• by not joining the EEC, Britain won’t be subjected to France or Germany and won’t face opposition from the left and right and due to the fear of trade rights being restricted

• by joining the EFTA, not infringing on national sovereignty

• after joining the EEC in 1973, divisions on whether to stay or not leading to a referendum in 1975 - stay

• Thatcher spoke to the right believing the EEC a threat, regarding European integration and worried about a European superstate - ‘no! no! no!’

• under major, the Maastricht treaty created fear that it was a step towards a federal state governed from Brussels - Eurosceptics emboldened this issue

relations with the USSR

• important of Britain to maintain support for its own protection during a time of tension - Cold War - since Britains own power had declined

• throughout 1951-1997

• regarded as Britains principle potential enemy due to ideological hostility, propaganda and regular crises

• trade links, visits by British tourists to the USSR and occasional visits to Britain from Soviet cultural or sporting groups

USSR - evidence of hostility - 1945-53

• war time alliance replaced by Cold War tension - fear of a third world war breaking out immediately

• soviet control of Eastern Europes attempt to gain control mover the democratic west of western controlled Berlin, with a blockade led to very poor relations

• Churchill criticised soviet control as secretive and sinister behind the ‘iron curtain’

USSR - evidence of hostility - 1950s onwards

• USSR and Britain accused each other of criticism as spheres of influence replaced old empire connection

• Britain regarded communist states as apart of society empire and encouraging signs of them wishing independence such as in 1956, Hungary

• USSR started bidding for the support of nations of Africa and asia as they emerged from europeon colonial control, creating Anglo-Russian relations such as the Suez crisis - Nassers acceptance of aid from the USSR

USSR - evidence of hostility - 1960s, 70s and 80s

• 1960s and 1970s, Britain still regarded USSR as a principle threat - reached had used espionage, in 1971, Britain expelled 105 diplomats accusing them of spying - Britain and other nato powers expressed concerns about the build up of soviet forced after the 1963 Cuban missile crisis

• 1980s, Thatcher strongly anti-communist attitude affected relations, being called the ‘Iron Lady’ by soviet media, advising against the US reducing its nuclear arsenal

USSR - evidence of friendship - 1953-1960

• Stalins death in 1953 raised hopes that Britain relations with the USSR might improve

• hoped sustained when Khrushchev, the new soviet leader, outlined he wished a state of ‘peaceful coexistence between east and west, competition will continue’ and the threat of war would decrease

• 1955 - Russian and British navies exchange goodwill visits, 1956 - Khrushchev visited Britain and in 1959, Macmillan visited Moscow

USSR - evidence of friendship - 1980s-90s

• 1980s, thatcher declared Gorbachev, reforming soviet leader who came into power in 1984, someone who she ‘could do business with’, visiting Moscow in 1984 and helped calmed down Russian concerns about the USA

• the collapse of the USSR in 1991, greatly improved Anglo-Russian relations - Britain hoped Yeltsin’s democratic reforms in Russia, preventing Soviet hardliners from seizing power

• London became a centre for Russian businessmen who had become rich from the sale of Soviet assets

• Britain helped Russia join GB group of the worlds leading industrialised nations, Britain and Russia signed trade and military agreement in 1992 with Yeltsin thanking Major on a visit to Britain

USA and the ‘special relationship’

• considered to have a special relationship, the impression coming from the close co-operation in ww2 and later on, the cold war

• Britains declining power and global presence meant the US was often required to step in compared to Britain being able to give limited military assistance

• Britain had given up its eastern bases in the early 1970s, meaning Britain was unable to assist US security concerns in the Pacific and Latin America

USA - evidence of disagreement - Korean War

• Britain clearly subordinate to America with American general MacArthur leading UN forces

• limited scale of British troop action showed to the US hate they could not rely on massive British support

• the decolonisation of Empire meant Britains declining power, meaning limited military assistance

USA - evidence of disagreement - Suez crisis

• Eisenhower was furious about Britain conspiracy with France and Israel use of force against Egypt and Suez despite clear instructions not to do so - refusing Britain help financially until British troops withdrew

• Britain had to used its veto to prevent US cote to use sanctions against Britains actions

USA - evidence of disagreement - 1960s and 1970s

• 1960s - Vietnam, British refusal to send troops to help military efforts in Vietnam, made even worse by WIlson’s attempt to broker peace on conflict which irritated LBJohnson

• 1970s - relations cool under the premiership of Heath, who was pro-European and supported a future of Europe meant he did not seek to maintain a relationship with the USA anymore ‘special’ than the rest of Europe

USA - evidence of disagreement - 1980s

• Thatcher and Reagan disagreed on three main aspects of foreign policy, in all three cases, Thatchers objections were ignored

• Reagan prepared to reduce US nuclear arsenal beyond Thatchers wishes in disarmament conferences with the USSR

• Thatcher opposed the USA Strategic Defence Initiatives believing the balance of nuclear weapons made the world a safer place

• Thatcher opposed Us invasion of Grenada in 1983 to overthrow its communist regime

USA - evidence of co-operation - Korean War, 1960s, 1970s

• During the Korean War, British troops fought alongside UN troops in North Korea, important in showing multi-national support for the US - Truman promised Attlee he would consult the British before using nuclear weapons

• 1960s - Berlin, Cuba, Kennedy regarded Macmillan as a political father figure who he consulted for advice for the Berlin crisis of 1961 and the Cuban missile crisis of 1962

• 1970s, the personal friendship of Callaghan and Carter helped restore the special relationship somewhat from Heaths government

USA - evidence of co-operation - 1980s

• Reagan and Thatcher shared a warm friendship, reinforced by foreign policy agreement

• American logistical and intelligence assistance was vital to British victory in the Falklands

• Both Thatcher and Reagan opposed UN sanctions against the white supremacist apartheid regime in South Africa

• Thatcher reciprocated in April 1986 by allowing the USA to use British based F-111 aircraft to bomb Libya in retaliation got terrorist actions against American targets

USA - evidence of co-operation - 1990s

• close cooperation between USA and Britain over the First Gulf War, multi-national force to force out Husseins Iraqi forces out of Kuwait - Britain made the third largest contribution to the international Taskforce

• Britain and other European NATO powers cooperated with the use in the conflict in the Balkans - bombing Bosnian Serbs in retaliation for the ‘ethnic cleansing’ attacks on Muslims, particularly the massacre at Srebrenica, resulting in the Dayton Peace Accords, ending the bitter civil war in the states which had made up Yugoslavia