chem sem 2

moles to moles

multiply by mole ratio

grams to grams

divide by molar mass a , mole ratio, multiply by molar mass b

liters to liters

divide by 22.4, mole ratio, multiply by 22.4

particles to particles

divide by avogrados number, mole ratio, multiply by avogadros number

just remember abt mole maps

converting to moles, moles on top, converting to other, moles on bottom

percent yield

actual / theoretical x 100

how to find empirical formula

1. perent to mass'

2. mass to mole

3. divide by small

4. multiply till whole

how to find molecular formula

1. calculate empirical formula

2. divide molar mass by emp formula

3. multiply # by each subscript of emp formula

finding limiting reactant, finding product from limiting

1. balance equation

2. pick reactant and convert to other (a —> b)

3. mol b needed> mol b given, b is limiting

mol b needed< mol b given, a is limiting

1. mol limiting reactant (in problem) —> mol product

2. mol product —> g of product

acids

dissolves in water to contain more H+ ions

acid properties

• ph below 7

• sour taste

• react w metal to produce hydrogen gas

• react. w bases to produce salt and water

• will turn blue litmus paper red

• can corrode metals and burn skin

bases

dissolves in water to produce more hydroxide ions OH-

base properties

• ph above 7

• bitter taste

• slippery feel

• can neutralize acids

• turn red litmus paper blue

• can corrod metals and burn skin

neutral substance

substance that is neither acidic nor basiic, containing ewual # of H+ ions and OH- ions. will be exactly ph 7

arrhenius acid

produces hydrogen ions H+ in water

arrhenius base

produces hydroxide ions OH- in water

bronsted lowry

acid: donates protons

base: accepts protons

general neutralization reaction

occurs when equimolar solutions of acids and bases react and create neutral solution

acid + base —> salt + water

logarithm

power to which a number (base) to produce given #. based on power of 10

titration

process of adding known amt of solution to known concentration, determines concentration of another solution

point of neutralization

point of titration

equivalence point

when # of moles of hydrogen same as moles of hydroxide

standard solution

solution of known concentration, indicators used to determune when enough standard solution added

how does table J work

Table J, ranks elements based on their chemical reactivity, allowing you to quickly predict if a single replacement reaction will spontaneously or nonspontaneously 

Metals ranked from most active (top) to least active (bottom) 

An uncombined metal will spontaneously replace a mental ion in a solution if it is higher on the table than the metal it is replacing. 

If the single element is lower the reaction is not spontaneous 

electrochemical cells

Electrochemical cells are a device where redox reactions may produce electrical energy, or in which electrical energy is used to produce a chemical reaction.  

anode

• The electrode at which Oxidation occurs 

• Spontaneously loses electrons 

• Salt bridge prevents the build up of charge (Balance charges)

cathode

• The electrode at which Reduction occurs. 

• Spontaneous reactions 

• Cathode: less active 

• Spontaneously gains electrons 

Electrolyte

• a conductive solution inside which the electrodes are immersed. 

electrode

an electrical conductor that connects the metallic parts of a circuit to a non-metallic part of a system

Salt bridge

• allows for a flow of ions between two cells, Electrons flow from anode to cathode 

voltaic/galvonic electrochemical cell

1. Works when an externally applied current drives non– spontaneous chemical reactions (Uses spontaneous redox reaction to generate electrical current)   (similar to a battery) 

The salt bridge is a kind of electrochemical cell called a galvanic cell 

electrolytic

1. world when an externally applied current dries non- spontaneous chemical reactions  (Similar to a car alteration) Measured in volts 

Both has anode and cathode 

Electrolysis is a nonspontaneous, induced redox reaction in an electrolytic cell. 

The reaction will not move forward unless you add energy 

properties of gases

• low density

• highly compressive

• lots of empty space

• expand or contract

pressure units

1 atm = 101.325 KPa

1 atm = 101,325 pascals

1 atm = 760 mmHg

1 atm = 760 torr

boyles law

P1V1=P2V2

temp = constant

pressure increase as volume decrease

charles law

V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

pressure = constant

temp increases as volume increases

gay-lussacs law

P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

volume = constant

temp increases as pressure increases

avogadros law

V1 / n1 = V2 / n2

temp + pressure = constant

n = moles

combined gas law

P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2

ideal gas law

PV = nRT

R = 0.0821 (gas constant)

n = moles

daltons law of article pressure

Dalton's law is that the total pressure of a gas mixture equals the sum of each gas’s pressure. 

Formula: Ptotal = P₁ + P₂ + P₃ ….  

EX: If a tank has nitrogen = 78 kPa, oxygen = 21 kPa, carbon dioxide = 2 kPa

The Total pressure: 78 + 21 + 2 = 101 kPa

kinetic molecular theory

Explains why gasses behave the way they do 

• Gas particles move constantly and randomly.

• Gas particles travel in straight lines until they collide.

• Gas particles are very small compared to the space between them.

• Gas particles have no strong attractions or repulsions.

• Collisions are elastic, meaning no net energy is lost.

• Temperature measures average kinetic energy.

Main idea: higher temperature = faster particles = more kinetic energy

organic chemistry

study of structure + properties of compounds containing carbon

functional groups

branch of elements that give an organic compound chemical and physical properties

alcohols

contains -OH at any end. name ends in “ol”

carboxylic acid

contains C=O bond. Name ends in “oic acid”

ketones

C=O bonds located between carbons. name will end in “one”

Aldehyde

carbonyl group at the end of molecule. name will end in “al”

ether

oxygen placed between carbon atoms. name end in “ether”

ester

made of carbonyl group with an adjacent oxygen. name will end in ester

amine

has nitrogen at its center. can be primary, secondary, or tertiary

hydrocarbon (saturated and unsaturated)

chemical compound consisting entirely og hydrogen and carbon

saturated: consists of only one single carbon-carbon bond

unsaturated: at least one double or triple bond between carbon

alkane

saturated hydrocarbon, not very reactive since consists only single bonds

rules to naming an alkane

1. parent chain

2. identify alkyl groups attatched

3. # chain so attatched groups have lowest possible #’s

4. use prefixes to indicate amt of attatched groups

5. list diff substitutents in alphabetical order'

6. certain prefixes ignored (-di -tri - tetra, secondary +tertiary)

hydrocarbon prefixes

1- meth 2- eth

3- prop 4- but

5- pent 6- hexa

7- hepta 8- oct

9- non 10- dec

ring structure

IUPAC rules

1. identify parent chain

2. number chain

3. identify suffix

4. identify substitutents

5. alphabetitize and assemble

alkene vs alkyne

alkene: unsaturated double bonds

alkyne: unsaturated triple bonds

structural isomer

can take on more than one unique structural formula

geometric isomer

cis- same side

trans- opposite side

Alkyl group

Made of Carbon and Hydrogen, also defined as an alkane that is missing 1 hydrogen  

Methyl

A fundamental, stable functional group in organic chemistry, consisting of one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atom

Ethyl

A functional group containing two carbon atoms (-CH₂CH₃) derived from ethane. It is not a standalone chemical itself but rather a building block that attaches to larger molecules

amide

consists of carbonyl (C=O) directly bonded to a nitrogen atom (MUST HAVE OXYGEN DOUBLE BONDED RIGHT NEXT TO NITROGEN) 

how to write half reactions

Reduction - half reaction (Gaining electrons) 

Fe⁺³ + 3e^-   Fe 

Oxidation half reaction (losing electrons) 

Fe Fe⁺³  + 3e^-