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aldehyde

Oxygen double bonded to a Carbon

Carbon is attached to a Hydrogen and another Carbon

Ketone

Oxygen double bonded to a Carbon

That Carbon is bonded to Two other Carbons

D configuartion

OH facing Right

or Up

L configuration

OH facing Left

or Down

Glucose Structure

Down, UP , Down

Galactose Structure

Down, UP , UP

Furanose

is a five-membered ring

ex fructose

Pyranose

is a six-membered ring

ex glucose, galactose

Alpha

anomeric carbon = opposite of carbon 6

Down

Beta

anomeric carbon = Same as carbon 6

UP

Epimers

are sugars that differ in configuration at only one specific carbon atom.

enantimers

are pairs of molecules that are mirror images of each other but cannot be superimposed.

diasteromers

are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other and differ at one or more chiral centers.

epimer fal under this category

anomer

differ at another anomer.

fructose stucture

UP, Down

Monosacharide

cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler sugars.

one sugar

Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Disacharides

composed of two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

polysacharides

Carbohydrates formed by the union of multiple monosaccharides. They are complex sugars like starch and glycogen.

Maltose

• barley

• Glucose + Glucose

• Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bond

Lactose

glucose + galactose.

It is found in milk and dairy products.

Beta 1-4 glycosic

Sucrose

glucose + fructose.

table sugar

found in many plants.

not reducing sugar

reducing sugar

Any sugar that can act as a reducing agent

due to its free aldehyde or ketone group,

allowing it to be oxidized.

Examples include glucose and maltose.

Nonreducing sugar

cannot act as a reducing agent

due to the absence of a free aldehyde or ketone group,

thus not being oxidized.

Examples include sucrose and trehalose.

Cellulose

A complex carbohydrate composed of long chains of glucose units.

It is a key structural component of plant cell walls.

unbranched

human can not digest

starch

A polysaccharide made up of glucose units,

primarily used by plants for energy storage.

moderatly branched

Glycogen

Highly branched

energy storage for human body

polysaccharide made of glucose.

fucntional groups in amino group

COO ^ -

NH +

Polar Side Chain

hydrophilic

capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.

Surface of protein

EN atom, OH, SH, NH

Nonpolar Side Chain

hydrophobic

do not interact well with water

CH, CH3 hydrocarbon chains or rings.

center of protein

Basic Side Chain

positively charged groups

can accept protons. .

Acidic Side Chain

negatively charged groups that can donate protons.

Primary 1 Protein

structure of a protein consisting of a linear sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Secondary 2 Protein

structure of a protein characterized by local folded structures, including alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding between the backbone of amino acids.

Teritary 3 Protein

the overall three-dimensional structure of a protein formed by the folding and interactions of secondary structural elements, including side chain interactions.

Quartenary 4 Protein

the structure of a protein that results from the association of multiple polypeptide chains, forming a functional complex.

Hydrogen bond

H and EN atom

O, F, or N; a weak attraction between molecules.

Electrostatic interaction (ionic)

two different charges

Positive + Negative

Disulfide

bond formed between two cysteine residues in proteins, contributing to their tertiary and quaternary structure.

S- S

Hydrophobic Interaction

London Dispersion

Nonpolar + Nonpolar

Heme group

one of the 4 iron containing parts of hemoglobin that binds to oxygen

changes shape when oxygen binds or is released.

This conformational change enhances the hemoglobin's ability to pick up and release oxygen efficiently.

Bohr effect

The physiological phenomenon where an increase in carbon dioxide concentration or a decrease in pH results in a reduction of hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, facilitating oxygen release in tissues.

Temp and O2 binding

Inversibly proportional OPPOSITE

ex relationship; as temperature increases, hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen decreases.

Blood PH and O2

directly related (SAME)

ex. As blood pH decreases, hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen decreases, promoting oxygen release in tissues.

Partical CO2 and O2

The relationship is inversely proportional (OPPOSITE);

as carbon dioxide concentration increases, hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen decreases, enhancing oxygen delivery to tissues.

Keratin

Hair, Nail , skin

Two helices coiled

alpha helix

Collagen

Tendon, ligaments

3 helices coiled

and skin, providing structural support and strength to connective tissues.

Denaturation

disruption of protein structure due to external stressors such as heat, pH changes, or chemicals, resulting in loss of function.

Heat

Hydrogen bond

hydrophobic interaction

Acid and Base

Hydrogen Bond

salt bridge

Agitation

hydrogen bond

hydrophobic interaction

organic compound

hydrophobic interacton

antibodies

proteins produced by the immune system that recognize and bind to specific antigens.

Cofactor

a non-protein substance that assists enzymes in catalyzing reactions.

ex. Metal ions or Coenzymes (organic)

Coenzyme

a type of organic cofactor that works with enzymes to facilitate biochemical reactions.

Lock and Key method

is a model that describes how enzymes and substrates fit together precisely, like a key fitting into a lock.

Specfic, One on One

Induced fit model

is a theory that explains how enzymes change shape to better fit substrates during the reaction process, allowing for a more precise fit than the lock and key model.

more options

Competive inhibitor

is a substance that competes with the substrate for binding to the active site of an enzyme,

thereby reducing the enzyme's activity.

Binds to enzyme site

inhibitor resembles the substrate's structure, allowing it to bind to the active site but not undergo a reaction.

Noncompetitive Inhibitor

is a substance that binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site,

decreasing enzyme activity regardless of substrate presence.

Saturated

No double bond

in the fatty acid chain, resulting in a maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached.

Solid

Unsaturated

contains one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chain, resulting in fewer hydrogen atoms.

Typically liquid at room temperature.

Essential fatty acid

is a type of fatty acid that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet. These include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, crucial for various bodily functions.

Melting point in fatty acids

More double bond = LOW
Single bond = HIGH

More carbon = HIGH

Fats

soild

animal source

higher MP

Oil

liquid

plants source

unsaturated fats

Triacyglyerol

three fatty acid chains esterified to a glycerol backbone,

serving as a major form of stored energy in the body.

Glycerophospholipid

a type of phospholipid containing two fatty acid chains and a phosphate group (PO) and alcohol attached to a glycerol backbone,

fundamental to cell membrane structure.

Spingophospholipid

a class of phospholipids that contain a sphingosine backbone, one fatty acid chain, and a phosphate group, and alchol

important in cellular signaling and membrane structure.

aspirin

supresses production of prostaglandins

inhabits blood clot formation

Cholesterol

backbone of steroid

Chylomicron

a type of lipoprotein that transports dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body.

VLDL

a type of lipoprotein that carries triglycerides and cholesterol from the liver to tissues.

LDL

a type of lipoprotein that carries cholesterol to cells throughout the body, often associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease.

HDL

a type of lipoprotein that removes excess cholesterol from cells and transports it to the liver for excretion or recycling, often referred to as "good" cholesterol.

Bilayer

a membrane structure consisting of two layers of phospholipids, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward.

Prostaglandin

a group of lipid compounds that are derived from fatty acids and have important roles in inflammation, blood flow, and the formation of blood clots.

Thromboxanes

lipid compounds that are derived from arachidonic acid, playing a crucial role in platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction.

Leukotrienes

a group of inflammatory mediators derived from arachidonic acid, involved in immune responses and allergic reactions.