AP Psych

Neuron

A specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses.

Dendrites

Branches of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon

The long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

A protective covering that surrounds axons and speeds up neural transmission.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are exchanged.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse between neurons.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and reward.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter regulating mood, sleep, and appetite.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are linked to pleasure.

Agonist

A substance that enhances or mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state.

Endocrine system

The collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Pituitary gland

The master gland of the endocrine system, controlling other glands and regulating hormones.

Adrenal glands

Glands that produce hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol during stress.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions like thought and action.

Frontal lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex associated with reasoning, planning, and problem-solving.

Parietal lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex that processes sensory information.

Occipital lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex responsible for visual processing.

Temporal lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex that deals with auditory information and memory.

Broca’s area

A region in the frontal lobe associated with the production of speech.

Wernicke’s area

A region in the temporal lobe involved in the comprehension of language.

Corpus callosum

The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.

Sensation & Perception

The processes of receiving sensory information and interpreting it.

Absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

Difference threshold

The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected.

Weber’s law

The principle that the difference threshold is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

Sensory adaptation

The decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Gestalt principles

Rules that describe how the human eye perceives visual elements as unified wholes.

Depth perception

The ability to perceive the distance of objects.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Bottom-up processing

An approach that starts with sensory input and builds up to perception.

Top-down processing

An approach that starts with the larger context and applies it to smaller pieces.

Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect light and dark.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect color.

Trichromatic theory

Theory that the human eye has three types of receptors for color.

Opponent-process theory

Theory stating that color perception is controlled by opposite processes.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Classical conditioning

A learning process that pairs a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned response (UR)

The natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The process of developing a learned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different but related stimuli.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Operant conditioning

A learning method where behavior is controlled by consequences.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens the preceding behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Token economy

A system where desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens.

Observational learning

Learning by observing the behaviors of others.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a behavior.

Cognition & Memory

The mental action of acquiring knowledge and understanding.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored.

Storage

The maintenance of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of bringing stored information back into consciousness.

Sensory memory

The very brief retention of sensory information.

Short-term memory

The capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active state.

Working memory

A system for temporarily holding and processing information.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent storage of information.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know.

Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection.

Procedural memory

Memory for skills and procedures.

Semantic memory

Memory for facts and general knowledge.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal experiences and specific events.

Chunking

Grouping information into manageable units.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that help in retention and retrieval.

Proactive interference

When prior learning interferes with new information.

Retroactive interference

When new information interferes with old learning.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help in the recall of stored information.

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Developmental Psychology

The study of how people change over the lifespan.

Attachment

An emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver.

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants often display.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and high demands.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness.

Erikson’s stages

A theory proposing eight stages of psychosocial development.

Piaget’s stages

A theory of cognitive development that includes four stages.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity does not change even when its shape does.

Theory of mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts and feelings different from one's own.

Kohlberg’s moral development

A theory that suggests moral reasoning develops in stages.

Temperament

The inherent personality characteristics and emotional response patterns.

Motivation, Emotion, & Personality

The study of the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain human behavior.

Maslow’s hierarchy

A theory proposing a hierarchy of human needs, from basic to self-actualization.

Drive-reduction theory

The idea that physiological needs create an aroused tension state that motivates an organism.