Environmental Law and Policy Final

Clean Air Act (CAA)

U.S. law regulating air pollution through national standards and emissions controls.

NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards)

Air quality standards set by the EPA for pollutants harmful to public health and the environment.

State Implementation Plans (SIPs)

State-created plans showing how states will meet NAAQS requirements.

1990 Clean Air Act Amendments

Major revisions introducing cap-and-trade for sulfur dioxide and stronger pollution controls.

Cap-and-Trade

Market-based system where companies can buy and sell pollution allowances.

Clean Power Plan

Obama-era EPA rule aimed at reducing carbon emissions from power plants.

Affordable Clean Energy Rule (ACE)

Trump-era replacement for the Clean Power Plan with weaker federal regulation.

Strength of the Clean Air Act

Reduced major air pollutants and acid rain significantly.

Weakness of the Clean Air Act

Enforcement and political disagreements can limit effectiveness.

Clean Water Act (CWA)

U.S. law regulating discharge of pollutants into waters of the United States.

POTWs (Publicly Owned Treatment Works)

Municipal wastewater treatment facilities regulated under the CWA.

NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System)

Permit system controlling water pollution discharges.

Point Source Pollution

Pollution entering water from identifiable sources like pipes or factories.

Nonpoint Source Pollution

Diffuse pollution from runoff agriculture or urban areas.

Wetlands

Water-saturated lands protected for ecological importance.

WOTUS (Waters of the United States)

Legal term defining waters protected under the Clean Water Act.

Strength of the Clean Water Act

Greatly improved water quality and wastewater treatment.

Weakness of the Clean Water Act

Nonpoint source pollution remains difficult to regulate.

CERCLA

Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act law for cleaning hazardous waste sites.

Superfund Sites

Highly contaminated sites prioritized for cleanup under CERCLA.

National Priorities List (NPL)

EPA list of hazardous waste sites needing long-term cleanup.

Love Canal

Famous toxic waste disaster that helped inspire CERCLA.

Joint and Several Liability

Any responsible party can be held liable for the entire cleanup cost.

SARA (Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act)

Amendments strengthening CERCLA and increasing cleanup authority.

Strength of CERCLA

Provides funding and authority for hazardous site cleanup.

Weakness of CERCLA

Cleanup is expensive and can take decades.

RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act)

Law regulating hazardous waste from creation to disposal.

Manifest System

Tracking system for hazardous waste transportation.

Generators

Facilities that produce hazardous waste.

Transporters

Entities that move hazardous waste.

TSD Facilities

Treatment storage and disposal facilities for hazardous waste.

Landfill Regulations

Rules to prevent contamination from waste disposal sites.

RCRA and Recycling

Encouraged waste reduction and safer recycling practices.

Strength of RCRA

Tracks hazardous waste cradle-to-grave.

Weakness of RCRA

Compliance can be expensive and complex.

TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act)

Law regulating chemicals that may pose unreasonable risk.

PCBs

Toxic industrial chemicals banned under TSCA.

Asbestos

Hazardous fibrous mineral linked to lung disease.

Radon

Radioactive gas linked to lung cancer.

Lead

Toxic metal harmful especially to children.

Formaldehyde

Chemical regulated due to cancer and health concerns.

Strength of TSCA

Allows EPA oversight of chemical safety.

Weakness of TSCA

Historically difficult for EPA to restrict chemicals.

EPCRA (Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act)

Law improving emergency planning and public access to toxic chemical information.

Emergency Response Plans

Local plans for responding to hazardous chemical releases.

Toxic Release Inventory (TRI)

Public database of industrial toxic chemical releases.

Strength of EPCRA

Increased public awareness of chemical hazards.

Weakness of EPCRA

Relies heavily on self-reporting.

ESA (Endangered Species Act)

Law protecting endangered and threatened species and habitats.

Endangered Species

Species at immediate risk of extinction.

Threatened Species

Species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future.

Critical Habitat

Protected areas essential for species survival.

Safe Harbor Agreement

Agreement encouraging private landowners to help endangered species.

Incidental Take Permit

Permit allowing limited harm to species during lawful activities.

God Squad

Committee allowed to exempt projects from ESA requirements in rare cases.

TVA v. Hill

Supreme Court case stopping Tellico Dam to protect the snail darter fish.

Spotted Owl Controversy

ESA conflict between species protection and logging industry.

Economic Consideration in ESA

Economic factors generally cannot determine species listing decisions.

Foreseeable Future

Timeframe used to evaluate threatened species risks including climate change.

Strength of ESA

Prevented extinction of many species.

Weakness of ESA

Conflicts with economic development and land use.

NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act)

Procedural law requiring environmental review of federal actions.

Procedural Law

Law requiring process rather than specific environmental outcomes.

EA (Environmental Assessment)

Preliminary review of environmental impacts.

EIS (Environmental Impact Statement)

Detailed analysis of significant environmental impacts.

FONSI (Finding of No Significant Impact)

Conclusion that an EIS is unnecessary.

Strength of NEPA

Increases transparency and public participation.

Weakness of NEPA

Can slow projects without guaranteeing environmental protection.

SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act)

Law regulating public drinking water systems.

Ideal Limits

Health-based contaminant goals with no known risk.

Feasible Limits

Enforceable contaminant standards based on technology and cost.

Environmental Justice and SDWA

Low-income communities may face poorer drinking water quality.

FIFRA (Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act)

Law regulating pesticides through risk-benefit analysis.

Risk-Benefit Analysis

Comparing environmental and health risks against economic benefits.

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration)

Agency regulating workplace safety and exposure limits.

Exposure Risk

Probability of harm from contact with hazardous substances.

Primary Air Pollutants

Pollutants emitted directly from a source.

Secondary Air Pollutants

Pollutants formed through atmospheric reactions.

Acid Rain

Rain made acidic by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Smog

Air pollution mixture often involving ozone and particulates.

Ozone

Reactive gas beneficial in stratosphere but harmful at ground level.

Greenhouse Gases

Gases trapping heat in Earth’s atmosphere.

Climate Change Mitigation

Actions reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Climate Change Adaptation

Adjustments to cope with climate impacts.

Payment for Environmental Services (PES)

Financial incentives for conservation actions.

Pollution Prevention

Reducing pollution before it is created.

Brownfields

Contaminated sites with redevelopment potential.

Environmental Justice

Fair treatment of all people in environmental policy.

Cooperative Enforcement

Regulatory approach emphasizing collaboration over punishment.

Technology Forcing

Regulations pushing industry to develop cleaner technology.

Montreal Protocol

International treaty reducing ozone-depleting substances.

Risk Assessment

Process evaluating likelihood and severity of harm.

Hazard Identification

Determining whether something can cause harm.

Exposure Assessment

Measuring how much contact occurs with a hazard.

Dose-Response Assessment

Relationship between exposure amount and effect severity.

Externalities

Costs or benefits affecting people not directly involved in a transaction.

Property Rights

Legal rights to own or use resources.

Preservationist

Supports protecting nature from human use.

Conservationist

Supports sustainable resource use.

Common Pool Resources

Shared resources vulnerable to overuse.