personal rs - definitions - paper 2

attraction

a feeling of naturally being drawn to another individual

A romantic relationship

a relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence in many domains of life. Usually has physical bonds

similarity attraction model - formation of personal relationships - cognitive approach to understanding relationships

The Similarity-Attraction Model proposes that individuals are more likely to be attracted to others who they perceive as similar to themselves in characteristics such as attitudes, values, background, or personality. This perceived similarity creates a sense of comfort and validation, as it reinforces one’s own beliefs and boosts self-esteem. According to this model, shared traits enhance liking and relationship formation, suggesting that attraction is based more on similarity than on difference.

variations across cultures - formation of personal relationships and sociocultural approach to personal relationships

However, this cognitive approach does not account for variations across cultures. 

Cultural psychologists argue that passionate love is largely a Western phenomenon. 

In the West, marriage is seen as the culmination of a loving relationship.

In cultures where arranged marriages occur, the relationship between love and marriage is the other way around. Love is often expected to develop after marriage rather than serve as its foundation.

Attribution Style - communication in personal relationships and why relationships change or end

The Attributional Theory of Relationships explains how the way partners interpret each other’s behavior affects relationship satisfaction. According to this theory, couples in happy relationships use relationship-enhancing attributions—they explain negative behavior as being caused by external, situational factors and give their partner credit for positive actions. In contrast, unhappy couples display distress-maintaining attributions, blaming their partner for negative events and overlooking or dismissing positive behavior. These attributional patterns influence how couples handle conflict and maintain emotional closeness or dissatisfaction over time.

Communication and conflict - communication in personal relationships and why relationships change or end

It is said that The key to conflict in personal relationships is not avoiding conflict but in how it is handled. Conflict is only negative if it's not resolved constructively

Gottman proposes four destructive communication styles that predict the breakdown of relationships. These behaviors—criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling—erode trust, intimacy, and emotional connection between partners.

Neurotransmitters - dopamine - biological approach to personal relationships

Neurotransmitters play a key role in attraction by creating the intense emotions and motivation associated with romantic love. Together, they drive obsession, excitement, and focus on a specific partner. Dopamine, in particular, is central to this process — it activates the brain’s reward system, producing pleasure and motivation whenever a person thinks about or interacts with their loved one. This dopamine-driven reward reinforces attraction, encouraging individuals to seek closeness and form personal relationships.

hormones - oxytocin - biological approach to personal relationships

Oxytocin is about attachment. Hormones play a key role in attraction by influencing attachment and bonding, which help relationships develop and persist over time. Oxytocin promotes trust, intimacy, and positive communication by reducing stress and anxiety, thereby strengthening emotional bonds between partners.

internal working model - cognitive approach to personal relationships (excluding similarity attraction model)

the internal working model is a mental framework formed during early attachment experiences that shapes how an individual understands themselves and others in relationships

It consists of beliefs and expectations about the self, about attachment figures, and about how relationships function. This model guides future social interactions, emotional bonds, and responses to intimacy or conflict in later life.

familiarity and mere exposure effect - sociocultural approach to personal relationships

familiarity: seeing people several times is enough for us to start to find them more attractive

Mere exposure effect: photos of strangers were rated more attractive the more times they were seen. Seeing a face more often makes people think them to be more attractive

research methods - true experiment - ditzen

true experiment: a study that takes place in a highly controlled environment, such as a laboratory.
The researcher tests a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable and measuring a dependent variable.
Participants are randomly allocated to each condition of the experiment and the procedures are highly standardized to ensure reliability.
valuable because it can establish cause-and-effect relationships by controlling extraneous variables.

research method - observation - bradbury and fincham

and observation is a qualitative research method that attempts to explain a behavior without establishing a cause and effect relationship. Typically, they are done in naturalistic environments, however, they can be done in laboratories as well. they can be covert or conducted without the participants’ knowledge or overt, which is with the participants’ knowledge. they can also be participant or non-participant, where the researcher is included in the observation or not. observations are valuable because they have high ecological validity, explaining real world behaviors.

ethical considerations - anonymity - gupta and singh

all personal information collected during the study is kept confidential and participants’ identities are not revealed in the publication or use of the data. This ensures that the data cannot be traced back to any individual participant.

ethical considerations - undue stress or harm - bradbury and fincham

ensures participants are not exposed to excessive physical or psychological distress beyond what they would normally experience in their daily lives. Researchers must take steps to minimize harm and provide support if participants experience distress. To avoid undue stress or harm, researchers should ensure participants can withdraw at any time, Provide support such as counseling, and Debrief participants and check on their well-being after the study.