psych

perception

How we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

attribution theory

The theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (dispositional attribution).

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition when analyzing others’ behavior.

actor-observer bias

The tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, while observers attribute others’ behavior to internal causes.

prejudice

An unjustifiable and typically negative attitude toward a group and its members, often involving negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people, which can be accurate or overgeneralized.

discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

just-world phenomenon

The belief that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve.

social identity

The aspect of our self-concept derived from our group memberships.

ingroup bias

The tendency to favor our own group.

scapegoat theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

other-race effect

The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races.

attitudes

Feelings influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

role

A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that we act to reduce discomfort when our thoughts are inconsistent.

persuasion

Changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

peripheral route persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

central route persuasion

Occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

norms

Society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior.

conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

Influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

obedience

Complying with an order or command.

social facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

social loafing

The tendency of individuals in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal.

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion.

groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

culture

The behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted across generations.

tight culture

A culture with clearly defined and reliably enforced norms.

loose culture

A culture with flexible and informal norms.

aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

frustration-aggression principle

The principle that frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression.

social script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

mere exposure effect

The tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.

passionate love

An intense positive absorption in another, usually at the beginning of a romantic relationship.

companionate love

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

equity

A condition where people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

social exchange theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process aimed at maximizing benefits and minimizing costs.

reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing their help.

conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

social trap

A situation where two parties, by pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

mirror-image perceptions

Mutual views held by conflicting parties, where each side sees itself as ethical and the other as evil.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

superordinate goals

Shared goals that require cooperation among people with differing viewpoints.

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

psychodynamic theories

Theories that focus on the unconscious mind and the significance of childhood experiences in shaping personality.

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives; the techniques for treating psychological disorders.

unconscious

A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, as per Freud.

free association

A method in psychoanalysis where individuals express thoughts freely to explore the unconscious.

id

According to Freud, the reservoir of unconscious energy that strives to satisfy basic drives.

ego

The partly conscious executive part of personality that mediates between id, superego, and reality.

superego

The part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment.

defense mechanisms

The ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by distorting reality.

repression

The basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts from consciousness.

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

terror-management theory

A theory that explores people's responses to reminders of their death.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test where people express inner feelings through stories about ambiguous scenes.

projective test

A personality test designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.

Rorschach inkblot test

A projective test that identifies people's inner feelings through their interpretations of inkblots.

humanistic theories

Theories that focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's levels of human needs, often visualized as a pyramid.

self-actualization

The motivation to fulfill one's potential, emerging after basic needs are met.

self-transcendence

The striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.

unconditional positive regard

A caring, accepting attitude believed to foster self-awareness and self-acceptance.

self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves; our answer to, 'Who am I?'

trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or disposition to act in certain ways.

personality inventory

A questionnaire designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely researched and used personality test, originally developed to identify emotional disorders.

empirically derived test

A test created by selecting items from a pool that discriminate between groups.

Big Five factors

Five traits describing personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

social-cognitive perspective

A view that behavior is influenced by the interaction of personality and social context.

behavioral approach

Focuses on the effects of learning on personality development.

reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

self

Assumed to be the center of personality, organizing thoughts, feelings, and actions.

spotlight effect

The overestimation of others noticing and evaluating our appearance or performance.

self-esteem

Our feelings of high or low self-worth.

self-efficacy

Our sense of competence and effectiveness.

self-serving bias

A tendency to perceive ourselves favorably.

narcissism

Excessive self-love and self-absorption.

individualism

A cultural pattern emphasizing personal goals over group goals.

collectivism

A cultural pattern prioritizing the goals of important groups.

motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

physiological need

A basic bodily requirement.

drive-reduction theory

The idea that a physiological need creates an arousal that motivates behavior.

homeostasis

The maintenance of a balanced internal state.

incentive

An environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson law

Performance increases with arousal only to a point, after which it decreases.

affiliation need

The need to build and maintain relationships.

self-determination theory

The theory that we are motivated to satisfy our needs for competence and autonomy.

intrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

extrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior to receive rewards or avoid punishment.

ostracism

Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.

achievement motivation

A desire for significant accomplishment or mastery.