Psych of Gender Midterm 2

Core Housework

Tasks that need to be done every day (Daily meal preparation, meal clean-up, indoor cleaning, laundry)

Non-Core Housework

Tasks that don’t necessarily need to be done daily (outdoor cleaning, house maintenance/repair, gardening, car maintenance)

How much of housework did mothers account for in 2015

In 2015, mothers accounted for ⅔ of all household work done by Canadian parents

The feminization of household work

Contributes to social obligations affecting the basis of power and restricting women’s power and limiting their financial independence. More time in the home = less time to gain an income and be self-sufficient

Research shows that equally sharing domestic labour leads to:

Higher marital satisfaction

The perceived fairness is what this is based on, not the actual distribution

How labour is divided is also based on socioeconomic status and job flexibility

Making enough money to outsource some domestic work can make the remainder more equally distributed within the couple

Household Labour Divisions by Couple Type

Lesbian couples have the most equal distribution of labour

Married heterosexual couples with children have the least equal distribution of labour

How does the perception of fairness affect labour in gay and lesbian couples.

The perception of fairness is rooted in established gender roles which are refuted in those types of relationships.

Women in heterosexual married relationships are more likely to perceive their heightened domestic duties as fair.

Those who endorse traditional gender roles are more likely to perceive unequal distribution of labor as fair.

Study by Cassino and Cassino

Examined the division of household work in married couples who work full-time

They looked at the relative income hypotheses specifically

Hypothetically, couples who make the same amount of money would do the same amount of housework and as one starts to earn more, the other would pick up more housework.

Findings: When husbands earn less than their wives, the differential in domestic work is actually greater.

Making more money than husbands resulted in a penalty.

What was the exception found in the study done by Cassino and Cassino

Exception: Cooking

Emasculated men refuse to do chores—except cooking

The more money the wife earns, the more cooking the husband does

Cooking does not carry the same social meaning as other chores do, and does not threaten the manhood or masculine gender status of man

Does not include cleaning up after cooking

Conclusion: The gender typing of different forms of domestic labour deters men from doing feminine-typed chores even when they have more free time

Parental Involvement of Fathers in Japan

Since the late 1980s, the Japanese government has initiated several social programs to change norms about parenting and encourage more parental involvement among fathers

The Ikumen Project tracks information about childcare leave programs, offers parenting advice, and seeks to improve society by helping men become more active parents

The danger of this is creating a societal fatherhood mandate (like the motherhood mandate)

Parental Leave in Sweden

Sweden became the first country in the world to include fathers in work–family legislation, replacing maternity leave with the more inclusive parental leave

In the first decade of this parental leave, women were 90% of the conjoined leave days

To combat this, Sweden introduced a “daddy quota” of days that could not be transferred between spouses

Where are men and women rated more effective

Men are rated as more effective leaders in male-dominated settings (e.g., military)

Women are rated as more effective leaders in female-dominated settings (e.g., elementary school)

Study by Rudman

Found that High IQ female leaders are more likely to be sabotaged compared to other groups. Higher perceived dominance in High IQ female leaders led to more sabotage.

High IQ men leaders were least likely to be sabotaged.

Bias Against Men in the Workplace

Men with success in traditionally female jobs tend to be less respected

Modesty during job interview leads to more prejudice against men than comparably modest women

If men are working for a female boss, they are seen as less masculine

Sexual orientation, gender identity, and race bias at work

Work-place discrimination is consistently high for members of minority, marginalized and stigmatized groups

Black women report lack of mentorship, feelings of isolation, exclusion, pressure to code switch in front of White people.

Transgender employees report job termination, sabotage by management, harassment and intimidation, stigmatization, ostracism, and coworkers being awkward and uncomfortable with transition process.

Current Status of Gender Wage Gap

Canada 2024: women earned 87 cents for every dollar earned by men

Gap is wider for marginalized groups, including racialized and Indigenous women

Critics of the gender wage gap

They don’t argue that there is a wage gap, they argue that it is impossible to create a level playing field and that there are logical reasons for the wage gap that do not reflect sex-based discrimination

Experiment by Small et al.

Women are more likely to negotiate salary when it is framed in terms of “asking for more” rather than using the term “negotiate”. Men are opposite.

Framing situations as a negotiation goes against gender roles of being polite and easy-going, and takes into account the backlash for agentic women.

Two main trends in housework:

People do much less non-childcare housework overall now than in the past

The gender gap in housework is shrinking

“Mental” housework

Remembering and reminding their partners about personal and household tasks and obligations such as errands or doctor visits. Women take responsibility for this

“Office housework”:

Planning meetings, circulating birthday cards, organizing retirement parties, and so on. Women take on the majority of this

Heterosexual marriage and housework

Over the course of heterosexual marriages, husbands’ contributions to housework tend to decline.

Women do much less housework now, about half of what they did in 1965, whereas men do about twice what they did in 1965

The stalled gender revolution

Heterosexual men’s unequal contributions to labour at home led to a trend called the stalled gender revolution

Between the 1960s and 1980s, the US saw gains in women’s equality

Shifts in women’s time from inside to outside the home were not matched by equal shifts in men’s time from outside to inside the home

Women’s increasing gains plateaued as their workplace advancement was limited by the housework and childcare that fell largely on their shoulders

Who does what in gendered housework

Women

cooking, laundry, cleaning, and childcare

Men

tasks can be performed occasionally rather than every day, and they therefore allow for more choice and flexibility in terms of scheduling (ex. Home repairs)

Male-typed jobs are more dangerous, such as climbing on the roof to clean gutters

Same sex couples and housework

Same-sex couples tend to place great value on equality in their relationships

Members of same-sex couples often report dividing housework based on personal preferences and abilities rather than on gender roles

Heterosexual couples and childcare

Women’s hours per week spent on childcare have increased by about 50% since the 1960s, and men’s have tripled

Predictors of the Division of housework - Time availability theory

Argues the partner who spends less time in paid work will do more housework

This theory cannot explain why women who work full-time outside the home still do more housework than their male partners who work the exact same amount of time

Predictors of the Division of housework - Relative Income Hypothesis

Argues that whoever makes more money in a relationship does less housework

Research both refutes and supports this hypothesis

Exception: As men become more dependent on the income of breadwinner wives, they actually do less housework, not more

Predictors of the Division of housework - Gender Role Ideology Hypothesis

A couple’s beliefs about gender roles influence the division of housework. Willingness to do specific housework tasks may reflect one’s beliefs about the gender-appropriateness of those tasks

People with more gender-egalitarian attitudes tend to divide housework equally, whereas those with more traditional attitudes about gender tend to divide housework along gendered lines

Couples divide housework more evenly in countries with more egalitarian attitudes about gender

Gender role ideology in housework

More traditional gender role ideology portrays men who do housework as lacking masculinity and as powerless in their marriage.

This explains why resisting housework (female-typed work) may offer men means of displaying power when feeling their masculinity threatened

Being unemployed threatens the status ideals of masculinity, explaining what Cassino and Cassino found in their study

Men experience gender threat when their economic stability is based on their female partner

When men feel powerless at work, they do less chores at home

Predictors of the Division of housework - Maternal gatekeeping

Women sometimes express reluctance to give up household and childcare work to men

Women tend to report liking housework more than men, and people generally believe that women are more competent at housework

Beliefs that women like housework and are better at it rationalizes inequalities

Women and working spheres

Women make up 40% of the world’s workforce, but they hold only a small percentage of upper-management positions.

Women around the world hold only 4.5% of CEO positions and 14% of top business executive positions.

Women and men tend to lead differently:

Female leaders tend to adopt more interpersonally oriented, democratic, collaborative, and less directive leadership styles than male leaders

Women also tend to use a transformational leadership style more than men, which means that they lead through mentoring actively, inspiring trust, and encouraging others to develop their full potential

Female leaders more frequently reward workers for good performance, whereas male leaders use a hands-off leadership style

Glass ceiling

The invisible barriers that keep women (and other underrepresented individuals) from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements

Glass cliff

A leadership position fraught with risk, which occurs when a company needs to be saved from failure or from a high-profile scandal.

Companies more often select female over male leaders under risky, unfavorable conditions

Ex. female lawyers often get assigned to lead high-risk, controversial cases over males

Glass cliff effect

The tendency to place women and other marginalized individuals into leadership positions under risky, precarious circumstances where the likelihood of failure is high

Sticky floor

Barriers that keep low-wage workers, who are disproportionately likely to be women and members of other marginalized groups, from being promoted.

Some argue this is a worse phenomenon than the glass ceiling because this happens earlier in one’s career, stunting growth or showing skills initially

Glass escalator

The tendency for some men to be fast-tracked to promotions and leadership positions in female-typed professions.

Men in typically female occupations such as nursing, social work, or elementary education tend to advance further and faster than women in these professions

4 biases against women in the workplace

1. Prove-it-again bias: Women have to work harder than men to prove their competence.

2. Maternal wall: Working mothers are perceived as less competent and make lower wages.

3. Tightrope: Employed women are viewed as less likable if they are assertive, and as less competent if they are warm

4. Tug of war: Women feel like they have to compete against one another for access to limited positions, promotions, and workplace rewards

Queen bee syndrome

A phenomenon in which women who hold authority positions in male-dominated professions distance themselves from other women and treat female employees more critically

Study conducted by Derks et al.

Looked at 63 Dutch female senior-ranking police officers

They found that reminders of an experience of gender discrimination decreased queen bee behavior for those with high gender identification at work.

Female officers with low gender identification distanced themselves from other women, denied the presence of gender discrimination in their workplace, and described themselves in masculine terms.

Bias Against Men in the workplace

Men who conform less to typical gender role expectations are most targeted

Men who advocate for others rather than themselves tend to be seen as less competent and therefore less worthy of promotions

Men who signal their commitment to their families by requesting family leave may face penalties at work

Men in male-dominated jobs who appear insufficiently masculine are especially likely to endure teasing, insults, and threats from coworkers

Workplace Bias Based on Sexual Orientation, Gender, Race, and Disability Status

42% of LGB-identified individuals experienced employment discrimination, and 35% experienced harassment at work

57% of transgender respondents report experiencing discrimination at work

More facts about the gender wage gap

Women earn less than men in every country around the world.

South Korea has the largest gender wage gap ($0.63), and Italy has the lowest ($0.94).

Lesbian women earn on average about 9% more than heterosexual women.

Gay men earn about 11% less than heterosexual men do.

Possible Explanations for the Gender Wage Gap - Education and Occupational Segregation

The segregation of occupations by sex, with certain jobs dominated primarily by men and others dominated primarily by women.

Men dominate the top-paying majors, whereas women dominate the lowest-paying majors

Men tend to dominate the 10 highest-paying U.S. college majors, while women tend to dominate the 10 lowest-paying U.S. college majors

Possible Explanations for the Gender Wage Gap - Occupational Feminization

Jobs become low paying when (or because) women choose them

When women enter previously male-dominated fields in large numbers, the pay for these jobs tends to decline

Occupational feminization: The entrance of women in large numbers into a previously male-dominated occupation.

Occupational masculinization: The (relatively rare) entrance of men in large numbers into a previously female-dominated occupation. The salary for these occupations rise as men enter the field

Possible Explanations for the Gender Wage Gap - Salary Negotiation

Women tend to negotiate less often than men for higher salaries

People evaluate women who negotiate—in comparison with men who negotiate—more negatively (Tightrope Bias)

Men achieve better negotiation outcomes than women

Recent MBA graduates: 51.9% of men vs. 12.5% women negotiated job offer

Women receive 8.5% lower average annual starting salaries

Possible Explanations for the Gender Wage Gap - Relocations and Career Interruptions

Employers may pay women less than men because they believe women are less likely to leave their current position for a higher salary elsewhere

Women do statistically express more reluctance than men to relocate

Higher pay comes with job experience. Since women take on domestic and childcare responsibilities, it becomes harder for them to build job experience without career adjustments and interruptions

Motherhood penalty: The wage penalty that some working women—but not working men—experience following the birth of a child.

Employed mothers interrupt their careers more often than employed fathers to care for a child or another family member

Possible Explanations for the Gender Wage Gap - Overwork

The traditional breadwinner role for men carries with it expectations that they should work a lot—particularly when they have a family to support

• Working long hours becomes a demonstration of masculinity

• May account for 10% of total gender wage gap

• Men with children are more likely to overwork (opposite is true for women)

Work–family conflict

Tension between work and home life, in which time spent in each domain detracts from contributions to the other domain.

Men’s feelings of conflict have been increasing faster than women’s, in part, to men’s increasing overwork

Another factor may be the expanding role of communication technologies (e.g., iphone) that blur the boundaries between work and home and make it harder for some people to disconnect from work when they are at home

Mothers tend to experience greater work–family guilt than fathers.

Work–life enrichment

Feelings of enrichment between work and home life, in which a fulfilling job positively spills over into the home, and a satisfying home life spills over into work.

Women tend to experience higher levels than men

Chronic discrepancy

Created between a person’s actual appearance and the ideal standards, when they compare themselves. This becomes internalized. People make these proscribed traits their own personal standards.

Unattainable standards create chronic discrepancy, leading to internalization, dissatisfaction, disordered behaviours, and dangerous practices.

What appearance ideal is prescribed for both genders

Youthfulness

Physically incompatible traits

Female beauty ideals have always prescribed physical incompatible traits like defined muscle but no body fat or small waist but large breasts.

The current female beauty standard represents the ideal incompatible visual, with thinness being ideal but large breasts.

Incompatibility: Breast fat is positively correlated with overall body fat

Biological discrepancy

“Curvaceously thin ideal”

Body stats

50% of girls in grade 6 are on a diet.

Over 50% of girls say they wish they were someone else.

9 out of 10 girls say they feel pressure from the media to be thin.

36% of girls in grade 6 say they are self-confident.

14% of girls in grade 10 say they are self-confident.

Example of backlash for not following gender beauty ideals

The ceo of J crew received harsh backlash for painting her son’s toenails pink

Objectification Theory

Argues that the primary way through which bodies get gendered is through objectification

Considers how the sexualizing of women’s appearances harms women and men

Interpersonal Sexual Objectification

Interactions with familiar others or with strangers

Begins at a very young age

75% of elementary school girls in the US report sexual harassment

85% of Canadian women experienced stranger sexual harassment

Examples of Interpersonal Sexual Objectification

Catcalling - Hollaback Project - She reported street harassment every 6 minutes over a course of 10 hours recording herself walking on the street

She received rape threats online when the video went viral

Men groping women on the subway in Tokyo led to women’s only platforms

Media related sexual objectifcation

Sex appeal is used to sell

Found across every medium of media

The Sexual Object Test

Developed by Caroline Helpman

Determined by 7 criteria

1. Does the image show only parts of a sexualized person’s body?

2. Does the image present a sexualized person as a stand-in for an object?

3. Does the image show sexualized persons as interchangeable?

4. Does the image affirm the idea of violating the bodily integrity of the sexualized person, especially one who can’t consent?

5. Does the image suggest that sexual availability is the defining characteristic of the person?

6. Does it show a person as a commodity that can be bought and sold?

7. Does the image treat a sexualized person’s body as a canvas?

Men as Sexualized Objects

The assumed spectator of these images is still the male gaze - men objectifying other men

Pornification of Girls

Pageant girls

Dirty halloween costumes

Playboy merch as school supplies

Push-up triangle bikini top for 7 year olds - Abercrombie and Fitch

Thongs for girls 7 years old - Abercrombie and fitch

Bratz Dolls - highly sexualized toy sold to young girls

The American Psychological Association Task Force

Put together to examine what the consequences and harms of the culture of objectification are.

Published a report on the growing objectification of young girls.

Used as a basis to demand change

Research was testing objectification theory

Objectification theory argues that what girls and boys come to learn about:

Women’s bodies is that it is normative for women’s bodies to be evaluated and sexually harassed

Was the first socio-psychological theory to propose specific pathways linking objectification to specific mental health outcomes in girls and women

OT argues that objectification is woven into the everyday social tapestry of lives and becomes unavoidable. It is recurrent. Women have to traverse this social landscape and it takes a toll on the mental health of girls and women.

Results in self-objectification

Self-objectification

Girls and women psychologically and behaviorally invest in their appearance as a way of anticipating and managing how others are going to view and treat them.

This self perspective creat

es more opportunities for women to have body shame and anxiety.

Girls and women turn that gaze on themselves, seeing in a sexual way, through an observer’s lens.

Self-objectification leads women to be at higher risk for:

Depression, sexual dysfunction, and disordered eating

Self Objectification involves:

View self as sexual object, from observer’s perspective

Value appearance over other attributes

Chronic body monitoring and beauty-ideal internalization

Health & Physicality Consequences of Self-Objectification

Self-injury

Smoking

Substance Abuse

Trauma symptoms

Cosmetic Surgery

Motivational Affective Consequences of Self-Objectification

Lower motivation and efficacy

Lower life satisfaction

Lower self-esteem

Cognitive Behavioural Consequences of Self-Objectification

More appearance-driven exercise

Prolonged body thoughts

Self silencing

Disrupts cognitive processing

Social and Environment Consequences of Self-Objectification

Hostility toward women

Thinks of sex as source of power

Rape myth acceptance

A Study tested how Self-Objectification Disrupts Cognitive Performance

They assigned men and women to wear either a swimsuit or sweater

Participants completed a math test and were given the option of eating something

Researchers found support for the hypothesis - only for women

Women in swimsuits scored the lowest on the math test

Study of “Acting Like An Object”

Studied if being sexually objectified made people act more like an object

Done on students, participants had up to 2 minutes to introduce themselves to either a male or female partner

Participant either watched them from the neck up, neck down, or just the audio

Study found that talking times were lowest for women who had the neck down condition

Talking times were highest for men who had the neck down condition

Women talked less than men overall, only if they thought they were talking to a male partner

Self-Objectification in Men

Exposure to idealized male bodies increases self-objectification and body dissatisfaction/shame in men

Gay men report higher self-objectification and body shame when wearing Speedo briefs compared to heterosexual men

Anticipation of sexual male gaze connects women’s and men’s experiences

Self-Objectification in Women With Eating Disorders

Studies a sample of women with eating disorders during residential treatment

Mean level of SO was 9.05—remarkably higher than non-clinical samples (which range from -10 to 7 on a scale ranging from -25 to 25)

Connected to higher internalization of media beauty ideals and drive for thinness in this sample

When women are objectified, they are viewed and treated as:

less competent, intelligent, agentic, moral

less human (dehumanized) – denied personhood

targets for sexual harassment & aggression

When men objectify their partners or consume objectifying media, they report:

less relationship & sexual satisfaction

greater acceptance of rape myths

socialized to view women in limited roles

Gendered Life Expectancy

Women outlive men in every country in the world

An average of 4.7 years longer worldwide

Boys die at higher rates than girls at every age

Baby boys are 24% more likely to die than girls by their first birthday

The gap is closing between female and male life expectancy in Canada

How are women disadvantaged in terms of life expectancy

The historical advantage for women is disappearing due to impacts of poverty and lifestyle

Mortality rates of high income males are lower than those of low income females

Lower Life Expectancies Among Marginalized Groups

Due to discrimination, poverty, no health insurance, and violence

Latino Paradox: Latinx Americans have as good or better health outcomes than non-Latinx White people in the U.S

Tyra Hunter: “A Death Robbed of Dignity”

A 24-year-old African American transwoman who was critically injured in a car accident in DC, August 1995

She was left untreated by paramedics when they discovered she was a trans woman

She had an 86% chance of surviving the crash if she had received care

An intersectional approach of understanding life expectancy and health care

Morbidity-Mortality Paradox

Though women tend to live longer, they have higher rates of morbidity (sickness and disability) than men.

Women experience more chronic conditions than men.

Genetic Factors That Shape Health - Telomeres

Disposable DNA sequences at ends of chromosome strands that protect genetic data and allow for cells to divide.

Each time a cell divides, telomeres get shorter; eventually the cell can no longer divide, and it dies. Telomeres are same length at birth in men and women, but male telomeres shorten faster which means male cells age faster

Genetic Factors That Shape Health - XX advantage

Carrying XX chromosomes (genetically female) may provide a longevity advantage

Most sex-linked diseases passed down via X chromosome

Having an XX pair can override these diseases

AKA women can fight sex-linked diseases better than men

Genetic Factors That Shape Health- Testosterone and Estrogen

Testosterone: Negatively impacts long-term health

Suppresses the body’s immune system

Estrogen: Provides some health benefits

Lower blood pressure

Increases expression of longevity-associated genes

How do behavioural factors contribute to gendered life expectancy

The more that behavioural factors contribute to a given cause of death, the larger the sex difference in rates of death from that cause.

AKA If a disease or cause of death is highly influenced by behavior, men and women may behave differently, which creates bigger gaps in death rates.

Biological causes → small sex difference

Behavior-related causes → larger sex difference

Suggests that health-relevant behaviors are influenced by gender.

Risky Behaviors are Health-Relevant Behaviors

90% of fatal work injuries happen among men

80% of accidents at home happen among men

70% of motor vehicle fatalities happen among men

Men experience more severe and fatal injuries in sports

Men are 3x more likely to own a firearm and 6x more likely to die from a firearm injury

Risky Substance Use and Diet are Health-Relevant Behaviors

Smoking: 5x more in men globally

Alcohol: 39% men vs 25% women globally

Diet: Men consume more red meat, salt, and fat

Increases risk of cancers, hypertension, heart disease, liver disease, violence, and accidents

Risky Sexual Activity is a Health-Relevant Behavior

Unprotected sex, intoxicated sex, and/or sex with strangers.

Boys partake in risky sex more in adolescence compared to girls

Women partake in risky sex more in their post-college years compared to men

Increases risk of STDs and unwanted pregnancy

Gender-Based Violence affects gendered life expectancy

In 2022, 184 women and girls were violently killed, primarily by men

One woman or girl is killed every 48 hours.

The proportion of Indigenous female victims continues to be significantly higher than their representation in the population (5%) with at least one in five victims (or 20%) being an Indigenous woman or girl

Maternal Health Crisis

Black women in the US are 2-3x more likely to die during pregnancy or childbirth compared to white women

Indigenous women are more than 2 times likely to die during pregnancy or childbirth

Forced Birth Evacuations

Part of the birthing process for Indigenous women; the practice where pregnant Indigenous women from remote locations are relocated to a major city’s hospital to give birth. Proposed as a way to reduce risk

In actuality, medical spaces are not safe for Indigenous women, this results in protest from Indigenous communities against this practice

Who is more likely to die in a climate disaster

Women are 14x more likely than men to die in a climate disaster

Climate change events are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and increases of gender-based violence

Linking traits to health outcomes

High agentic traits: Competitiveness, assertiveness, or leadership traits results in fewer physical symptoms of sickness, and better adjustment to illnesses.

This may be because of a stubborn mindset where they don’t want to admit to being sick

High communal traits: Warmth, cooperativeness, or nurturance traits have no consistent link to physical health.

Unmitigated Agency

A focus on the self to the neglect of other people.

arrogant, boastful, dominating, vindictive, self-absorbed

mistrusting, negative view of others

High substance use and disregarding advice of doctors; with poor social skills

Unmitigated Communion

A focus on others to the neglect of the self.

intrusive, overly concerned, controlling; chronically over-nurturing

ignore self and own need for social support or health support

Minority Stress Theory

Being a member of a minority group increases vulnerability to poor health and diseases

Minority membership leads to more stress which leads to adverse symptoms

Minority membership also increases use of substances and risky behaviours

Allostatic Load: The chronic stress felt due to minority membership leads to a number of poor health responses.

Barriers to Effective Health Care Among LGBTQ+ Individuals

Lack of adequate professional training in health

Difficulty of applying training to sexual and gender minority populations

Heteronormative and normative academic culture

Internalized homophobia and transphobia

Fears of revealing sexual orientation or gender identity to doctors

Implicit physician bias (presuming cisgender or heterosexual identity)